Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement that began in Germany in the 1500s and eventually spread throughout western and central Europe. Before the Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church was the center of Christianity in Europe. By the end of the 1500s, however, various rival churches had formed to challenge its dominance. These changes in religion had profound effects on political, social, economic, and intellectual life. They also contributed to the outbreak of civil wars in Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Scotland.
Roots of the Movement. The Protestant Reformation grew out of the religious conditions of the late Middle Ages. Historians disagree about the state of the Catholic Church during this period. Some believe that the church was in a period of spiritual decline, while others claim that most Christians were satisfied with it. In any case, it is clear that there were problems in the Catholic Church at this time. For example, the popes of the period often focused on politics and neglected important religious matters.
Many Catholics sought reforms within the church. Some of the most powerful voices for reform belonged to the humanists* of the early Renaissance. In the early 1500s, Christian humanists such as Desiderius ERASMUS of the Netherlands and Jacques Lefèvre d'Etaples of France hoped to renew religion by returning to the original sources of Christianity. Their interest in classical* thought led many humanists to produce new translations of ancient texts, including the Scriptures.
Lutheran Reforms. Martin LUTHER (1483–1546), a German monk, brought these tensions to a head in the early 1500s. A biblical scholar, Luther developed a new theology* that challenged many Catholic beliefs. In 1517 he issued a series of statements, known as the Ninety-five Theses, which questioned certain practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Humanist scholars soon adopted Luther's ideas and helped spread them. Publishers distributed his works throughout Germany, bringing him wide fame. The Catholic Church, however, accused Luther of heresy*. In 1521 the pope excommunicated* him and Holy Roman Emperor* Charles V declared him an outlaw. To avoid arrest, Luther went into hiding.
Meanwhile, Luther's followers were debating ways to put his ideas into practice. Eventually, they proposed a series of moderate changes in religious ritual and belief. Many German states and independent cities accepted these reforms. Close cultural and economic ties between Germany and the Scandinavian countries helped spread Lutheran ideas in northern Europe. At first, students and preachers played an influential role in the reform movement there. Later, the kings of Denmark and Sweden adopted the new faith as a way to weaken the power of Catholic bishops and to create state churches under their own control.
The Lutheran reforms caused a significant amount of social upheaval in Germany. Tension developed between supporters and opponents of the new movement. In 1524 the PEASANTS' WAR broke out, with farmers and townspeople protesting the policies of local lords and church leaders and demanding various rights. Troubled by these events and by the possibility of a permanent split in the church, a number of writers who had once supported Luther drew back. In 1524 Erasmus published an attack on one of Luther's major religious ideas. Many other humanists also turned against the Reformation, although some became preachers of the new faith.
Movements in Switzerland. Former humanists also took up the cause of reform in Switzerland. Between 1520 and 1525, Swiss preacher
Huldrych Zwingli persuaded the city of Zurich to adopt drastic religious reforms. Other Swiss cities followed a few years later. However, Zwingli disagreed with Luther on certain central religious ideas, causing a split between the groups led by the two reformers. Protestantism remained divided from this point forward.
The pace of change in Zurich was not rapid enough to satisfy some of Zwingli's followers. One group, known as the Anabaptists, organized its own rival churches. In 1534, Anabaptist extremists seized control of the German city of Münster. They established an authoritarian* government, banned all books except the Bible, and expelled or massacred all people whom they considered "godless." Eventually, Catholics and Lutherans who had been exiled by the Anabaptists stormed the city and regained control. Thereafter, the Anabaptist movement all but disappeared.
Calvinism. Beginning in the 1520s, humanists known as evangelicals helped bring about a reformation movement in France. They drew their beliefs from the writings of French reformer John CALVIN. In 1536 Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion, a powerful statement of religious ideas drawn from Luther, Zwingli, and other writers.
Calvin settled in the Swiss city of Geneva, where he developed a church organization that became a model for Protestants throughout Europe. His plan depended on cooperation between church and state. Calvin also emphasized the importance of education in reformed Christianity. At his urging, Geneva founded an academy that provided a humanist education and training in theology to future ministers. Many individuals who studied there went on to play leading roles in the Reformation.
As Calvinism spread into Catholic societies, it became a source of both political and religious conflict. In France, the Netherlands, and Scotland, independent Calvinist churches were linked together in a tightly woven structure. As a group, they tended to oppose royal policy and often found themselves in conflict with Catholic monarchs. In 1562, the first of a series of WARS OF RELIGION between Catholics and Protestants broke out in France. The wars continued until 1598, when the Edict of Nantes legalized the French Reformed Church.
Meanwhile, the Netherlands was under Spanish rule. In 1572, the Dutch rebelled and began to fight for their independence. Although the war began as a political struggle, it soon became a religious one as well. The Calvinist northern provinces won their independence, but the southern provinces remained under the control of the Catholic king of Spain.
In Scotland, Protestants led by preacher John KNOX opposed the Catholic queen, MARY STUART. In the 1560s, they forced the queen into exile, rejected the authority of the pope and bishops, and established the Calvinist church as a major force in Scottish life. Calvinism also gained a following in eastern Europe, especially in Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary.
The Reformation in England. The Protestant movement triumphed in England partly as a result of problems with the royal succession*. In the late 1520s, HENRY VIII sought an annulment* from his first wife, CATHERINE OF ARAGON, who had failed to produce a male heir. When the pope denied his request, England dissolved its ties with the Catholic Church. The doctrine of the new English church remained officially Catholic for the rest of Henry's life. However, two of Henry's close advisers, Thomas CRANMER (the archbishop of Canterbury) and Thomas CROMWELL (the chief minister), were influenced by Lutheran ideas.
Under EDWARD VI (ruled 1547–1553), England made further progress toward becoming a Protestant nation. Archbishop Cranmer oversaw the publication of an English-language prayer book that kept the outer forms of Catholic worship but was based on Protestant theology. When MARY I took the throne in 1553, she attempted to restore Catholicism. However, because she reigned only briefly and failed to produce an heir, the change did not last.
In 1558 ELIZABETH I came to power and took a moderate position favoring Protestants. The following year, she approved the Act of Supremacy, which denied the authority of the pope and recognized the queen as head of the English church. Most people accepted Elizabeth's policies and began to use the new English prayer book. However, some Protestants, known as Puritans, objected to Elizabeth's control of the church. They formed an active minority and continued to seek additional reforms into the 1600s.
