MALAYSIA

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

LOCATION AND SIZE.

Malaysia is situated in Southeast Asia, bordered by Thailand in the north, Indonesia in the south, and the Philippines in the east. The country has an area of 329,758 square kilometers (127,320 square miles). Comparatively, the territory of Malaysia is slightly greater than that of the state of New Mexico, the fourth-largest state in the United States. The Federation of Malaysia consists of 13 states, and is divided into 2 parts: 11 states are located in Peninsular Malaysia (also called West Malaysia) and 2 comprise East Malaysia, which is situated on the island of Borneo (see map). Peninsular and East Malaysia are separated by 640 kilometers (400 miles) of the South China Sea. Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur, is located in southeast Peninsular Malaysia, just 300 kilometers (187 miles) from Singapore. However, a new capital, Putrajaya, is being developed outside the overcrowded metropolitan area as the new administrative center. The strategic importance of Malaysia is in its location along the Strait of Malacca, which is a major sea-route connecting the Far East to Asia, Europe, and the Middle East.

POPULATION.

The population of Malaysia was estimated at 21,793,000 in July 2000. It has almost doubled since the 1960s due to improved health, medical facilities, and longer life expectancy. In 2000, the birth rate stood at 25.3 per 1,000, while the death rate stood at 5.25 per 1,000. The estimated population growth rate is 2.01 percent and if the current trend remains unchanged, the population could reach 31 million by 2020. The population is very unevenly distributed, with almost 81 percent, or 17.5 million, living in Peninsular Malaysia, and 19 percent, or 4.2 million, living in East Malaysia. The population density is about 129 people per square kilometer (334 people per square mile) in Peninsular Malaysia and about 20 people per square kilometer (52 people per square mile) in East Malaysia.

Malaysia is a multinational and multicultural country with a very diverse population. Malays and several indigenous groups make up 58 percent of the population. Ethnic Chinese, the second-largest ethnic group, make up 26 percent of the population; Indian descendants make up 7 percent, and various other groups together account for the remaining 9 percent. The current ethnic structure was formed during the colonial era in the 19th and 20th centuries, when the British administration encouraged migration from India and especially from China. The Malaysian population is very young, with 35 percent below age 14 and just 4 percent of the population older than 65. Urbanization came to Malaysia relatively late. In 1970, just over 28.8 percent of Malaysians lived in urban areas. In 1999 over half of Malaysians—57 percent—were living in urban areas. It is expected that within the next 10 to 15 years more than 70 percent of the population will live in urban areas, mainly in the Peninsular Malaysia.

Religion plays a very important role in the country. Islam is the official national religion and nearly all Malays are Muslims. Most ethnic Chinese are Buddhist. The majority of Indians (comprising the descendants of migrants from what became India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh) are Hindu, although there are many Muslims among members of this community. The largest proportion of the Chinese community has traditionally lived in the urban areas, while Malays have often lived in the country's rural regions.

In 1960, the Malaysian population was about 8 million, and the country at one time had one of the highest birth rates in Asia. The population doubled between 1960 and 1990, although population growth began to decline in the 1990s. The decline in population rates could be linked to the socio-economic changes in the economy that tightened the labor market and increased the number of women in the workforce, and the better education of women. Malaysia experienced an inflow of foreign workers employed mainly in the low-skill and low-wage construction and services sectors and in agricultural plantations. The Malaysian government would like to regulate the inflow of illegal migrants, who arrive mainly from neighboring Indonesia, as well as from Bangladesh and Burma, attracted by the geographical proximity and higher wages.

OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY

At present, Malaysia's industrial and service sectors are the 2 major pillars of the national economy. However, agriculture and mining were the 2 dominant sectors during its early history. Britain had slowly but steadily advanced into the region in the 18th and 19th centuries, establishing control over the territory of what would become present-day Malaysia. The British were attracted by the rich natural resources of this region and its convenient location along the Strait of Malacca, which was the main sea route connecting the Far East with British India and Europe. The British established large-scale plantations and introduced new commercial crops (rubber in 1876, palm oil in 1917, and cocoa in the 1950s). They also developed a large mining sector and encouraged migration of Chinese and Indian workers to these plantations and mines.

In August 1957, the Federation of Malaya was granted independence within the Commonwealth of Nations. In 1963, the Malaysian Federation was founded, comprising the Federation of Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak, and the State of Singapore. Singapore, however, left in 1965.

Since achieving independence, the Federation of Malaysia faced a need to develop and to diversify its economy, having a rapidly growing population. The country abandoned reliance on the export of primary natural resources and agricultural products and established itself as a rapidly industrializing country with a diversified export base. By the beginning of the 21st century Malaysia had become one of the fastest growing economies in Southeast Asia and third-richest state (after Brunei and Singapore) in the regional grouping known as the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN).

The Malaysian government promoted the free market with limited state intervention and export-oriented industrialization. Its exports to the international market were used to promote efficient use of the country's resources and generate hard currency, which was necessary for catching up and further developing into areas of technological and industrial innovation. In the mid-1960s, Malaysia established 5-year planning, targeting certain areas of economic growth and social changes, and allocating public resources for priority sectors of the economy and for infrastructure development. Despite these efforts, the government was reluctant to institute centralized control over the state's economy. The 5-year plans became a basis for official development strategies. For example, the recently completed "Seventh Plan" (1996-2000) targeted productivity growth and moved the country towards capital-intensive, high-technology industries. The political and inter-communal violence that had undermined the country's stability and security in the 1960s and 1970s gave way to a period of remarkable stability. This has attracted international investors and greatly contributed to the rapid economic growth of the 1980s and 1990s, especially in the manufacturing and service sectors of the Malaysian economy. Unlike the government of neighboring Indonesia, the Malaysian government has managed to keep its external debt at a relatively moderate level. In 1998, external debt stood at US$42 billion, or 59 percent of GDP with debt service payments of about US$6.0 billion. Estimates for the year 2000 estimated that Malaysian official reserves stood at US$29.6 billion. However, the repatriation of the profits by foreign investors may cause a problem for the Malaysian economy in the future.

The structure of the Malaysian economy has changed during the last 2 decades. According to the World Bank, the proportion of manufactured production grew from roughly 20 percent of GDP in the early 1980s to 31.5 percent of GDP in the late 1990s. Manufactured products accounted for around 85 percent of gross export earnings in 1999, with electronic goods becoming one of the most important products. The role of mining has steadily declined during the last few decades (Malaysia was one of the world's largest exporters of tin in the 1970s), now contributing just 7 percent of GDP. Malaysia continues, however, to export tin, gold, bauxite, ilmenite (a titanium ore), oil, and gas. Meanwhile, the role of agriculture in the country's economy has also been declining, although it provides employment to large numbers of Malaysians. Nevertheless, Malaysia remains one of the world's leading exporters of rubber and timber and produces almost half the world's palm oil. Tourism is another important and rapidly growing sector of the economy, with about 7.5 million tourists visiting the country in 1999 and contributing RM10 billion to the national economy.

Malaysia has a very diverse economy. The manufacturing sector is dominated by large multinational corporations, with a heavy Japanese presence among the largest companies. Meanwhile, the agricultural sector is dominated by medium and small firms. In East Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak, and in some northern states, many farmers are still engaged in subsistence agriculture. In the service sector, especially in retail trade, large international superstores such as Marks and Spencer, SOGO, and Yaohan are complemented by a number of medium and small enterprises.

Rapid economic growth and stability brought economic prosperity to a large proportion of the population, especially in urban areas. It also helped to keep unemployment at a very low 3 percent (for comparison, unemployment in the United States was 4.2 percent in 1999). In some sectors, Malaysia has begun to experience a shortage of labor. In the late 1990s, there was an inflow of large numbers of foreign workers through legal and illegal channels from neighboring Indonesia, with whom Malaysia shares some linguistic and cultural similarities, and from Bangladesh, the Philippines, and Burma (Myanmar). This inflow is sometimes blamed for existing criminal activities and black market operations.

Drugs are another important issue; Malaysia is situated very close to the so-called "Golden Triangle" (an area between Burma, Laos, and Thailand) that is the world's largest producer of illicit drugs such as opium. Malaysia is among the few countries in the world to have adopted the death penalty for possession and sale of drugs. However, neither organized crime nor the black market have had a significant impact on the national economy.

Due to the tremendous economic growth and its ability to preserve stability and promote its multicultural environment, Malaysia has become an increasingly popular destination for tourists from Europe, Japan, and North America. Malaysian tropical forests and beaches, colorful festivals in major cities, and luxurious hotels provide a vibrant environment for the development of hospitality businesses.

POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION

Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy largely influenced by the British parliamentary system. The country consists of 13 states and 2 federal territories. The heads of 9 of the states are hereditary rulers, and the heads of the remaining 4 states are governors appointed by the sovereign, on the advice of the federal parliament. One of the unique features of the political system in Malaysia is that the sovereign (Paramount Ruler or Yang di-Pertuan Agang in Malay) is elected every 5 years by and from the 9 hereditary rulers of 9 states of Peninsular Malaysia. The sovereign is the supreme head of Malaysia and supreme commander of the armed forces, but his power significantly diminished in the 1990s due to the constitutional changes initiated by the parliament; at present he plays a visible but mostly ceremonial role in the political process in the country. The prime minister, who has considerable executive power, must be a member of the 192-seat House of Representatives, and he chooses the cabinet with approval from the sovereign.

There are a number of political organizations in Malaysia. Most prominent of them are the Barisan Nasional (National Front); the governing coalition of 14 parties that forms the United Malays National Organization (UMNO); the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA); and the Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC). Of the opposition parties, the most influential is the Barisan Alter-natif (Alternative Front), which brings together the Parti Islam sa-Malaysia (Islamic Party of Malaysia), the Democratic Action Party, and some others. The governing coalition of the UMNO, MCA, and MIC was formed on the eve of independence, on a platform of achieving independence by peaceful means. It was transformed into the National Front after bloody inter-communal riots between Malays and Chinese in 1969. The Malayan Communist Party (MCP), which had gained much of its influence through its leading role in the resistance to Japanese occupation during World War II, ran a militant campaign for independence that did not get mass support and led to the Malayan Emergency (1948-1960), a period of social and political unrest. The MCP was banned and has never played an active political role in independent Malaysia.

Since Malaysia achieved independence, preservation of the balance between the main ethnic groups, political stability, and equal access to the national wealth were the major issues that shaped political debate and fueled conflict in the state. The coalition between the 3 main political parties and later the National Front, which represent the biggest ethnic communities in Malaysia, came to power on a platform of national consolidation and state paternalism (where the state makes decisions in social and economic affairs that in other countries would have been left to individuals and the market). This coalition was able to overcome deep divisions in Malaysian society and implement a successful policy of economic reforms, and it has remained in power ever since. In economic areas, the government has taken a very active role in the development and industrialization of the national economy. This has included significant investment in the state sector, a close alliance between government and private businesses, and the gradual privatization of state enterprises under a major privatization program launched in 1986.

In response to growing discontent between ethnic communities and the resultant rising social polarization, in 1970 the Malaysian government introduced a 20-year program called the New Economic Policy (NEP). The program was intended to encourage rapid economic growth in all sectors of the national economy, promote private entrepreneurship—especially among representatives of poor communities—and support small and medium-sized businesses. It was also intended to attract foreign investments, especially in modern technologies, by offering cheap and well-trained labor. At the same time, however, the government made major efforts to redistribute wealth. The NEP recognized the need for radical social changes and aimed to improve living conditions, economic power, and access to education and social benefits for Malays and indigenous people. These groups, who were called Bumiputera (sons of the soil), received privileged access to public services, were granted land rights and preferences in education and training, and benefited from job quotas in the public sector. This program was successful, and Malaysia achieved impressive economic growth, especially during the late 1970s, and throughout the 1980s. Between 1979 and 1989, the average annual GDP growth rate was around 5.2 percent, with manufacturing growing at an annual average of 8.2 percent and exports of goods and services at an annual average of 9.3 percent. In 1990, the NEP was replaced by the National Development Policy (NDP), which continued to promote economic growth, but relaxed some of the social requirements and privileges institutionalized under the NEP. Between 1989 and 1999, the average annual growth of GDP was around 7.6 percent, with manufacturing growing at an even more impressive 10.2 percent.

However, in 1997 Malaysia was affected heavily by the Asian financial crisis that started with the currency collapse in neighboring Thailand. Unlike Indonesia and Thailand, Malaysia became the only country in Southeast Asia to reject the International Monetary Fund's package of conditions and financial assistance, blaming international speculators for creating the crisis. The government, led by Prime Minister Dr. Mahathir bin Muhammad, opted for direct state intervention, imposing temporary restrictions on the currency exchange market and introducing various other measures, while his deputy called for further liberalization and economic restructuring. Against the recommendations of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Malaysian government temporarily established tough capital-control measures to contain capital outflow. The Malaysian currency, the Malaysian ringgit, was pegged to the U.S. dollar at a fixed rate of RM3.8 per U.S. dollar (according to the IMF, out of 16 larger emerging market economies, only China and Malaysia have fixed pegs). Although the IMF initially criticized the Malaysian government's imposition of capital control and other restrictive measures, it later recognized their effectiveness.

Allegedly, disagreement over the handling of the crisis led to the dismissal of Anwar Ibrahim, finance minister and deputy prime minister, who was also expelled from the UMNO, effectively ending his career. In 1998, Anwar was arrested on charges of corruption and homosexual activity and allegedly beaten while in custody. The trial consolidated Anwar's supporters and sparked protests across Malaysia in 1998 and 1999. Nevertheless, he was convicted on controversial charges of obstruction of justice. This trial undermined Mahathir's popularity at home and his standing internationally. The irregularities during the trial and police actions against demonstrations were condemned by human rights activists around the world.

The major proportion of government revenue comes from taxes, totaling 76 percent of revenue in 1999 (46 percent from direct taxes and 30 percent from indirect taxes). In 1999, the income tax rate was 28 percent for both resident and non-resident companies; however, companies resident in Malaysia have tax exemption on income brought in from abroad. The Malaysian government has introduced a number of initiatives for manufacturing activities, tourism, the agricultural sector, transportation, and communication.

INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS

From the colonial era, Malaysia inherited relatively well-developed but unevenly distributed infrastructure and transportation networks. After achieving independence, the Malaysian government made considerable efforts and large investments in expanding its highways, railroads, seaports, and airports. More recently, the government played an active role in encouraging development of modern modes of communications such as satellite telecommunications and the Internet. In the late 1990s, the government launched a privatization program in the transportation and communication sector, which brought private investments, allowed more flexibility, and provided initiatives for managers to increase profitability and production efficiency.

Malaysia is served by a network of 94,500 kilometers (58,721 miles) of primary and secondary roads, 70,970 kilometers (44,100 miles) of which are paved. This includes 580 kilometers (360 miles) of superior quality expressways, which connect Kuala Lumpur with Singapore and with major seaports and other destinations. However, the road transportation system is still underdeveloped in East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak), with most of the roads in Peninsular Malaysia. In the 1990s, with the rapidly growing number of privately-owned cars (840,000 new registrations in 1997 alone), the roads in the capital and other major cities became highly congested. This also brought air pollution in Kuala Lumpur to a very high level, which combined with pollution from forest fires in the Indonesian part of Borneo to create hazardous smog in 1997 and 1998. In 1996, there was a total of almost 7 million motor vehicles registered in Malaysia, including 2.8 million passenger cars, 3.4 million motorcycles and mopeds, 37,000 buses and coaches, and 400,000 trucks and vans. In response to the growing number of cars on the national roads, the government invested in development of the public transport system, including modernization of the country's railways and the construction of a light rapid-transit system in Kuala Lumpur.

Malaysia has a railway system of about 1,800 kilometers (1,120 miles), part of which was planned for privatization in 1998-99. In 2000, only 148 kilometers (92 miles) of railways were electrified. The major tracks run from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur, and further to Pinang and Bangkok (Thailand). However, the railways are unevenly distributed. There is only 1 railway track of about 134 kilometers (83 miles) in East Malaysia (in Sabah). Malaysia intends to invest heavily in development of a monorail system in Kuala Lumpur and into building new railways. The biggest project is the US$632 million (RM2.4 billion) Express Rail Link (ERL), which will connect Kuala Lumpur Central (the main railway station in the Kuala Lumpur City) with Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA). In 1996-97, the 8.6-kilometer Kuala Lumpur People Rapid Transit (monorail) was built at a cost of US$300 million (RM1.14 billion). The U.S.-based Parsons Transportation Group provided design and engineering services to the local Malaysian firm building

Kuala Lumpur's light rail transit systems. Several other multi-multimillion dollar railway projects have been initiated, but some were put on hold due to the difficulties caused by the Asian financial crisis.

Malaysia's seaports were established during the colonial era and served as merchant ports as well as British naval bases. The major ports are Kelang, George Town, Pinang, and Kuantan on the Peninsula, and Kota Kinabalu and Kuching in East Malaysia. During the last few decades, these ports were expanded to serve rapidly-growing Malaysian exports and imports. The West Port of Port Kelang has seen RM2.2 billion worth of combined (private and government) investments, while there has been RM2.8 billion worth of investment in the Tan-jung Pelepas Port. Competition has grown between Malaysia and Singapore for servicing international ships and handling containers, although 40 percent of Malaysia's international trade was handled through Singapore until recently. In 1998 Malaysia's seaports handled 83 million metric tons of cargo. In late 2000, there was an announcement that the world's largest container line, Maersk-Sealand, intends to move its regional trans-shipment operations from Singapore to the Malaysian port in Johor.

Malaysia has also promoted development of aviation in order to serve growing tourism and business needs. The country has 32 airports with paved runways, and 83 airports with unpaved runways. The largest of them, the US$3.2 billion state-of-the-art Kuala Lumpur International Airport, was opened in 1998. It is capable of handling 25 million passengers and 1.2 million tons of cargo annually. U.S. firms, including Harris, FMC, Adtranz, and Honeywell, have been awarded contracts to supply passenger trams, jetways, and information systems for this new airport. Malaysia transformed its national partly-privatized air carrier, Malaysian Airlines, into a world-class company, operating a fleet of about 100 aircraft.

In Peninsular Malaysia, electrical power is supplied by the predominantly state-controlled Tenaga Nasional company. Due to the rapid industrial development and growing demand for electricity, considerable efforts were made to privatize the national utility company and develop private initiatives to build and operate new power generating plants. To this end, a private consortium, the Independent Power Providers (IPPs), was established. Malaysia has sufficient reserves of oil, gas, and coal to meet its energy needs. Additionally, in East Malaysia there is huge potential for building hydroelectric power plants, but their development will require considerable investments. In the mid-1990s, the Malaysian government considered building the Bakun Hydro-electric Dam, which would have been one of the world's largest dams, in Sarawak; the controversial plan was abandoned, however, due to financial difficulties. In 1998, Malaysia produced 57.45 billion kilowatt hours (kWh), 94 percent of which was produced using fossil fuel and 5.22 percent by hydroelectric power plants.

Telecommunications services in Malaysia are provided by several competing companies. The largest is Telecom Malaysia, which formerly had a state monopoly in the sector. The quality of telecommunication services is up to international standards, thanks to an inflow of private investments and the government's initiatives in developing this sector. In 1998, the country had 4.4 million telephone lines and 2.17 million mobile phones. In 1999 there were 8 major Internet service providers (including Telecom Malaysia, MIMOS Ltd., and Maxis Ltd.), with a number of new companies announcing their intention to enter the market. In 1998, the Malaysian government announced the development of the multi-billion-dollar Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC). This ambitious project, 15 kilometers wide and 50 kilometers long, and stretching from Kuala Lumpur to the new international airport, is planned to become a Malaysian "Silicon Valley." The MSC will include 2 "smart cities," employing a high-technology environment, high-capacity telecommunications, sophisticated infrastructure, and even "electronic government."

ECONOMIC SECTORS

By international standards, Malaysia has a mediumsized, but rapidly growing economy. It is self-sufficient in important natural resources, including gas and oil, and has a good environment and climate for the production of various crops. Its location, on a crossroads of major sea routes that connect the Far East to South Asia, the Middle East and Europe, provides some additional advantages for the development of its international trade.

Malaysia has a diversified and rapidly expanding manufacturing sector, which between 1989 and 1999 grew at an annual average of 10 percent. Although in many areas of manufacturing, it relies on imported technologies and foreign investments, Malaysia was able to join the world's leaders in some fields. In the 1990s, it became the world's third-largest producer of integrated circuits and one of the leading producers of domestic appliances. Some of the world's largest corporations, such as Dell and Microsoft of the United States, NEC and Mitsubishi of Japan, and others, have opened branches in Malaysia.

Agriculture is still an important export earner, although it experienced stagnation with an average annual growth of only 0.2 percent between 1989 and 1999. Malaysia is the world's largest producer of palm oil, accounting for almost half of the world's production. In the past, the country also was the world's largest producer of rubber, but in the early 1990s it was overtaken by Thailand and Indonesia. Malaysia remains the world's fourth-largest producer of cocoa. Nevertheless, the share of agriculture in the GDP declined from 29 percent in 1970 to 12 percent in 1998.

The role of the mining sector, which once played a very important role in Malaysian exports, is also declining. For a long time, Malaysia was the world's largest producer of tin, but in the early 1990s was overtaken by Brazil and neighboring Indonesia. Malaysia has relatively large reserves of gas and oil. The country is ranked 13th in terms of the world's gas reserves and 22nd in oil reserves.

Malaysia also tries to promote its service sector, which has grown steadily over the last 2 decades, becoming the second-largest sector of the Malaysian economy. However, in doing so, Malaysia has to compete with neighboring Singapore. Local trade, tourism, and other services currently make important contributions to the country's GDP, providing employment for 32 percent of the Malaysian labor force.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture remains an important sector of Malaysia's economy, contributing 12 percent to the national GDP and providing employment for 16 percent of the population. The British established large-scale plantations and introduced new commercial crops (rubber in 1876, palm oil in 1917, and cocoa in the 1950s). The 3 main crops—rubber, palm oil, and cocoa—have dominated agricultural exports ever since, although the Malaysian share of the world's production of these crops declined steadily during the last 2 decades. In addition to these products, Malaysian farmers produce a number of fruits and vegetables for the domestic market, including bananas, coconuts, durian, pineapples, rice, rambutan (a red, oval fruit grown on a tree of the same name in Southeast Asia), and others. The Malaysian tropical climate is very favorable for the production of various exotic fruits and vegetables, especially since Peninsular Malaysia seldom experiences hurricanes or droughts.

As rice is a staple foodstuff in the everyday diet of Malaysians and is a symbol of traditional Malay culture, the production of rice, which stood at 1.94 million metric tons in 1998, plays an important part in the country's agriculture. However, the overall production of rice does not satisfy the country's needs, and Malaysia imports rice from neighboring Thailand and Vietnam.

In 1999, Malaysia produced 10.55 million metric tons of palm oil, remaining one of the world's largest producers. Almost 85 percent or 8.8 million metric tons of this was exported to international market. Malaysia is one of the world's leading suppliers of rubber, producing 767,000 metric tons of rubber in 1999. However, in the 1990s, large plantation companies began to turn to the more profitable palm oil production. Malaysia also is the world's fourth-largest producer of cocoa, producing 84,000 metric tons in 1999.

Logging in the tropical rainforest is an important export revenue earner in East Malaysia and in the northern states of Peninsular Malaysia. In 2000, Malaysia produced 21.94 million cubic meters of sawed logs, earning RM1.7 billion (US$450 million) from exports. Malaysia sells more tropical logs and sawed tropical timber abroad than any other country, and is one of the biggest exporters of hardwood. Despite attempts at administrative control and strict requirements regarding reforestation in the early 1990s, logging companies often damage the fragile tropical environment. Sharp criticism from local and international environmentalist groups gradually led to bans on the direct export of timber from almost all states, except Sarawak and Sabah. In December 2000, the government and representatives of indigenous and environ-mentalist groups agreed that there is a need to adopt standards set by the international Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), which certifies that timber comes from well-managed forests and logging companies have to be responsible for reforestation.

INDUSTRY

MINING.

Tin, oil, and gas are the major natural resources of export significance produced by the mining sector in Malaysia. The mining of tin was introduced during the colonial era and until the 1980s the country was the world's largest producer of tin, being overtaken in the early 1990s by Brazil and neighboring Indonesia. The major mines are situated in Peninsular Malaysia, making it easy to transport their products to the nearest seaports. Malaysia's exports of tin declined from 36,812 metric tons in 1994 to 22,376 metric tons in 1998, affected by fluctuations in the world market.

During recent decades, Malaysia has increased production of crude petroleum and natural gas. In 1999, it produced 693,000 barrels of crude oil per day and 3.8 billion cubic feet of liquefied natural gas (LNG). The high-quality oil is extracted mainly from offshore platforms in the states of Terengganu, Sabah, and Sarawak, with a total of about 40 oilfields in operation (1999). There are 5 oil refineries situated in Malaysia. The production of gas increased steadily in the 1990s to meet the rising demand in the domestic and international markets, with exports mainly going to Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore. Malaysia was ranked thirteenth in the world in terms of gas reserves and twenty-second in oil reserves in 1999. The state-controlled petroleum corporation, Petronas, has been seeking a greater role in the international market, investing in promising new projects in the Middle East and Southeast Asia.

Overall, mining plays a declining role in the national economy of the country, contributing just under 7.3 percent of GDP and providing employment for 39,000 people or under 1 percent of the labor force (1998). However, there is great potential for development of this sector, since Malaysia has various relatively under-exploited mineral resources in East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak), including bauxite, iron ore, copper, ilmenite, and gold. Additionally, there are large offshore reserves of high-quality oil and gas.

MANUFACTURING.

Malaysia has established a diverse and quickly-growing manufacturing sector that plays an increasing role in the Malaysian economy. Manufacturing contributes about 29 percent of the GDP, providing employment to 2.3 million people or 27 percent of the workforce (1999). From the late 1970s, the proportion of GDP provided by the manufacturing sector in Malaysia grew from 20.2 percent in 1979 to around 29 percent in 1999. The United States continues to be the single largest foreign investor in Malaysia's manufacturing sector, with approved new manufacturing investments totaling US__BODY__.37 billion (RM5.2 billion) in 1999. The major investment projects were in the chemical, electronics, and electrical industries.

Malaysia built up its manufacturing sector mainly in the 1970s and 1980s, utilizing its long-established industrial centers on the island of Pinang and the Kelang Valley, its well-developed transportation infrastructure (including seaports and railways), and the entrepreneurial skills of its small and medium-sized businesses. The industrial sector initially consisted of oil refining, machinery assembly, and light industries (including foodstuff processing and textile manufacturing). However, as in neighboring Singapore, the Malaysian manufacturing sector was boosted in the 1970s and 1980s by the extensive growth of the electric assembly and electronics sectors. Malaysia became an important producer of radios, television sets, stereo equipment, and other related products. In the 1980s, the Malaysian government launched its national automobile project, the locally produced Proton car (in cooperation with Mitsubishi of Japan), and in the late 1980s, it started exporting the Proton to the international market. In the 1990s, there was further growth in the manufacturing sector, especially in export-oriented electronics production, including semiconductors, silicon wafers, and other items. Malaysia has become the world's third-largest producer, and one of the world's largest exporters, of semiconductors.

As in neighboring Singapore, the Malaysian government has played an active role in industrialization and economic development. In this regard, the Malaysian Industrial Development Agency (MIDA) has been instrumental in promoting the rapid development of targeted sectors of industries (especially knowledge-and technology-intensive sectors), since all industrial projects that involve foreign direct investments (FDIs) must be approved by the MIDA. The government also used direct investments and encouraged the inflow of FDIs, establishing special export-processing zones where investors were given access to well-developed infrastructure and enjoyed tax breaks and other privileges. Since the 1980s, the government has actively promoted the electronics, information technology, and multimedia sectors, and has encouraged the relocation of labor-intensive industries to Indonesia and Thailand.

Most of Malaysia's electrical and electronic products are produced for export to the United States, Europe, and other markets. This makes its manufacturing economy vulnerable to downturns in the regional and international market. Despite some restrictive measures and financial initiatives, Malaysia was negatively affected by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. In 1997 and 1998, its manufacturing sector experienced serious contraction; dozens of plants were closed and thousands of workers lost their jobs. In 1998 alone, the sector was reduced by about 10.9 percent across the board. However, in 1999 and 2000, Malaysia managed to reverse the recession in manufacturing, and this sector experienced an impressive growth of 12 percent per annum.

Malaysia is one of ASEAN's leading exporters of furniture, with total exports reaching about US__BODY__.02 billion (RM3.9 billion) in 1999. Access to cheap local wood makes Malaysian furniture manufactures very competitive in the international market. In 1999, the United States was the largest single market for Malaysian wooden furniture (37 percent), followed by Japan (14 percent), Singapore (9 percent), and the United Kingdom (9 percent). If the rapid growth in this sector remains unchanged, by 2005 Malaysia could become one of the top ten furniture exporters in the world.

SERVICES

TOURISM.

Tourism is becoming an increasingly important sector of Malaysia economy. Together with the retail sector, it provides employment for almost 1.57 million people, or around 17 percent of the labor force. Roughly 7.5 million tourists visited the country in 1999, contributing RM10 billion to the national economy. This makes tourism one of Malaysia's top foreign exchange earners. According to the national authorities, the country has 1,426 hotels, the total room capacity of which almost doubled during the 1990s to about 110,000 in 2000. Most visitors have been from Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, Japan, China, the United Kingdom, and Australia.

In order to develop tourism, Malaysia has promoted its diverse cultural environment, hosting a number of cultural festivals and performances. It has also publicized its rich natural heritage, which includes tropical forests, coral reefs, unspoiled mountain ranges, rivers, and national parks. The country offers tax-free bargain shopping and excellent service, with top-class hotels such as Sheraton, Hilton, Intercontinental, and other well-established international chains opening branches. It offers a wide variety of activities, from eco-friendly and adventure tourism to scuba diving and relaxed family holidays on the numerous Malaysian islands and beaches. Additionally, Malaysia has signed visa-free regimes with most countries in Asia, the Americas, and Europe, enabling international tourists to travel to Malaysia without obtaining entry visas. In 1997, however, tourism suffered from the regional financial crisis and by the smog caused by several months of forest fires in Indonesia. The number of tourist arrivals declined significantly in 1997 and 1998; however, there was a strong recovery in arrivals in 1999 and 2000.

FINANCIAL SERVICES.

The financial service industry is another rapidly growing sector of Malaysia's economy. In terms of employment, it almost doubled from 230,900 people in 1988 to 447,200 people in 1998. Traditionally, this sector was built around the banking system, investments, insurance, and some other activities. For more than a decade until 1997, the financial service sector experienced rapid expansion fuelled by the inflow of Foreign Direct Investments (FDIs), reasonably cheap credits, and overall rapid economic growth in all sectors of the economy. Malaysia developed a sophisticated computerized banking payment system, encouraging development of electronic payment systems and electronic banking. The U.S.-based Motorola and Unisys have taken part in these projects as members of consortia that included local companies. Malaysia's government considered developing Kuala Lumpur into a regional financial center, competing with Singapore for this role, although it was slow to allow foreign brokers to operate at the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange (KLSE).

The 1997 regional financial crisis started with the collapse of the Thai currency (the Baht), which severely affected the Malaysian financial sector. Share and property prices declined significantly, provoking panic among local and international investors. Within a short time, the Malaysian ringgit had depreciated against major international currencies, especially the U.S. dollar. This inflicted considerable damage on local businesses, as a significant number of credits were in U.S. dollars and local companies faced extreme difficulties repaying those credits. The Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange (KLSE) lost more than half its value, plunging from RM807 billion in the middle of 1996 to RM376 billion in the middle of 1997. In response to this crisis, the Malaysian government imposed currency and capital controls, locked in foreign investors' share holdings for 1 year, and initiated a share-buying scheme with the government-controlled funds. In 1999 and 2000, financial services began their recovery, and the government slowly eased various restrictions and state control in this sector.

RETAIL.

Traditionally, in Malaysia many small and medium-sized businesses were built around the retail sector and were often associated with small shops and cafés run by Chinese merchants. The retail sector grew, in terms of its size and quality of service, due to a general rise in income among the population and an increase in tourism arrivals. In the 1990s, major international retail chains such as Yaohan and SOGO of Japan, Marks and Spencer of the United Kingdom, MAKRO of France and fast-food franchises such as McDonald's, Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), and others opened outlets in Malaysia. However, there are still a number of small family-run traditional shops and cafés, selling both imported and locally-made products.

Tourists can also buy pirated products, including footwear, optical disks (CDs), and computer software. According to one study, piracy may have accounted for losses of US$84.2 million (RM320 million) in market value in 1999. In April 2000, the United States Trade Representative (USTR) placed Malaysia on the special Priority Watch List for its failure to reduce pirated optical disc production and export. In response to this, the Malaysian police regularly launch crackdowns on unlicensed software businesses.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Malaysia's international trade experienced tremendous growth throughout the last 3 decades. The Malaysian government welcomed export-oriented industries, created a very positive investment environment in the country, and fostered close relations between government and private businesses. The government established a few barriers on the importation of goods and services, although it often opted for selective intervention and for protecting some sectors of the national economy. Over 5 years, Malaysia more than doubled its exports from US$29.416 billion in 1990 to US$74.037 billion in 1995. After the 1997 regional financial turmoil, Malaysia experienced economic recession, although this recession was much smaller and less destructive than that in South Korea or in Indonesia. Due to tough economic measures, Malaysia's exports recovered and reached US$83.5 billion in 1999.

Historically, the United States has long been one of Malaysia's largest trading partners, its exports to the United States reaching 21.9 percent in 1999, a year in which it was the United States' 12th largest trading partner. Trade between these 2 countries consisted mainly of assembled electrical goods and manufactured electronic

products. Neighboring Singapore is traditionally the second-largest export market, with the proportion of goods to Singapore reaching 16.5 percent and dominated by electrical and electronic equipment, machinery, metals, and mineral fuels. Japan is in third place at 11.6 percent, and, once again, exports are dominated by electrical and electronic equipment, machinery and mineral fuels. Other export destinations are the Netherlands, Taiwan, and Hong Kong.

Japan, the United States, and Singapore are also the 3 largest sources of imports. Most Malaysian imports originate from Japan, with the Japanese share of imported products reaching 20.8 percent in 1999, and consisting mainly of electrical and electronic equipment and machinery. The second most important source of imports is the United States, totaling 17.4 percent and dominated by electrical and electronic equipment and transportation equipment. Malaysia was the United States' 17th largest export market in 1999. Malaysia's third most important source of imports is Singapore, totaling 14.0 percent.

During the last 3 decades, Malaysian exports shifted from the sale of agricultural products, raw and processed natural resources, and labor-intensive manufactured goods (including clothing, footwear, and textiles) to the sale of skill-intensive products, including electrical and electronic equipment and parts, and services. The proportion of exported electrical machinery, appliances, and parts—including semiconductors, electronic equipment, and electrical appliances—reached almost 56 percent in 1998. The other important export products were commodities, chemicals and chemical products, manufactured metal products, and textiles, clothing, and footwear.

Malaysia has managed to maintain a positive trade balance, exporting more goods than it imports. Even during the recession of 1997 and 1998, the country had a large trade surplus of US$4.0 billion in 1997 and US$17.7 billion in 1998.

In the mid-1990s Malaysia faced growing competition from neighboring Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand, which could offer cheaper labor and larger and growing domestic markets. However, recent political and economic uncertainty in the region, especially military conflicts and terrorist activities in Indonesia and the Philippines has undermined the attractiveness of those markets. This has given an advantage to politically and economically stable Malaysia, although its government has often been criticized for the undemocratic measures used to maintain stability and political balance within the country.

Although Malaysia's industrialization and economic growth is highly dependent on international trade, the Malaysian government was less supportive of full economic liberalization than neighboring Singapore.

Malaysia's leadership was quite reluctant to support free trade within the Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) region, arguing that developing countries need more time to prepare for lifting all trade barriers. Additionally, the Malaysian prime minister, Dr. Mahathir, suggested setting up a new regional body, the East Asian Economic Caucus (EAEC), in order to strengthen the negotiating power of East-Asian countries with regard to the North American Free-Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the European Union.

MONEY

During the last 2 decades the value of Malaysian currency has shown remarkable stability, mainly due to the country's steady economic growth and regular state intervention into the currency exchange rate. The Malaysian dollar was floated in 1973, and in that year its exchange rate stood at around RM2.45 per US__BODY__. At the same time, the Malaysian dollar became the sole unit of legal tender, as Singapore and Brunei currencies were excluded from free circulation in the country. The government periodically revised its exchange control regulations, introducing further liberalization of the controls. In 1985, the Malaysian ringgit was valued at RM2.48 per US__BODY__, and this exchange rate remained practically unchanged until the 1997 Asian financial crisis.

During the period between 1973 and 1997, inflationary pressure was relatively small, with a peak inflation rate of around 17 percent in 1974. Remarkable stability was supported by a very high rate of savings. Malaysia has one of the highest savings rates in the world, at a level of around 40 percent of GDP. However, Malaysians also borrow rampantly, with a large proportion of investments directed to the booming property market and stock market. Outstanding loans were equivalent to 170 percent of GDP by the end of 1997, one of the highest such ratios in the world.

The Malaysian banking system is well established, with 38 commercial banks operating in the country in 1996, including 14 foreign banks and 12 merchant banks.

The foreign banks were represented by the biggest names, such as ABN AMRO Bank of the Netherlands, Mitsubishi and Tokyo banks of Japan, Citibank of the United States, Standard Chartered Bank of the United Kingdom, and others. However, the fundamental problem of the banking system in Malaysia, as in other emerging markets in Asia, was its exposure to bad loans, allegedly made to politically well-connected businessmen and to overheated property and share markets. This was an important factor that eventually led to a financial downturn.

The 1997 Asian financial crisis affected all regional currencies, dragging them downwards. The property and share markets also dwindled, putting additional pressure on the currencies. The Malaysian ringgit had plummeted from about RM2.55 per U.S. dollar in early 1997 to about RM3.75 in April 1998, and further to RM4.2 in August 1998 (speculations against the Malaysian ringgit on the currency exchange market largely contributed to this downturn). In response to this pressure, in September of 1998 the Malaysian government introduced a range of capital and currency-exchange control measures. A key component of this unprecedented move was pegging the Malaysian ringgit at RM3.80 per US__BODY__. The Malaysian government also closed all legal channels for the transfer of Malaysian ringgit abroad and froze the repatriation of stock assets abroad held by non-residents in Malaysia for a period of 12 months. It even limited its own tourists headed abroad from taking more than RM500 in cash.

Such tough measures reduced the impact of the financial turmoil of 1997 and 1998, although they were sharply criticized by the IMF and other international organizations. In August 1998, Russia defaulted on its international obligations, while Malaysia was slowly achieving economic recovery. Malaysia rejected financial assistance from the IMF and kept its external debt at the relatively moderate level of US$42 billion, or 59 percent of GDP, with debt service payments of about US$6.0 billion (1998). In order to rehabilitate non-performing loans (NPLs), the Malaysian government established the Danaharta, an asset-managing company with the task of buying and rehabilitating NPLs, and the Corporate Debt Restructuring Committee, which facilitated voluntary debt restructuring between creditors and debtors. By May 2000, the Danaharta had acquired about 42 percent of NPLs, with a total value of US$9.63 billion. The government also injected US__BODY__.9 billion into 10 banking institutions. In 1999 and 2000, Malaysia's economy was recovering, prompting the government to ease many of the restrictive measures, although it will take time for international investors to revive their confidence in the Malaysian market.

Malaysia has a single stock exchange, the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange (KLSE). During the period of expansion in the 1980s and 1990s, the KLSE was among the fastest growing stock exchanges in the region, with ambitions to become one of the region's leading financial centers. However, the KLSE lost ground after the stock market collapse in 1997, with some shares losing up to 80 percent of their value. With the strong economic recovery, there was a return of investors and the KLSE strengthened in late 1999 and 2000.

POVERTY AND WEALTH

Malaysia experienced extraordinary economic growth during the last 3 decades, which brought prosperity and higher standards of living to the majority of the people. One of the most important achievements in Malaysia has been the elimination of extreme poverty and hunger. The urban areas—especially the capital Kuala Lumpur, and major tourist destinations and industrial cities such as George Town, Malacca, and Petaling Jaya— enjoy a quality of living very similar to that in developed countries. The major cities have first-class shopping centers, condominiums with air-conditioning and swimming pools, expensive private schools, and elite clubs. The rural population, meanwhile, often lives in traditional wooden houses in kampungs (villages) with limited facilities.

The monthly gross household income nearly doubled from MR1,167 in 1990 to MR2,007 in 1995. There has emerged a fairly strong middle class. However, incomes are still distributed unevenly. For instance, the wealthiest 20 percent of Malaysians control 53.8 percent of the wealth, while the poorest 60 percent of the population controls just 21.3 percent of wealth. At the very bottom of the income range, the poorest 20 percent of the population controls only 4.5 percent of wealth. Disparities exist along both geographic and ethnic lines. In general, the Chinese population, which has traditionally lived in urban areas and been involved in small and medium-sized businesses or employed in various industries, has had higher incomes than the Malays, who often live in small towns and villages and were traditionally engaged in agriculture. Secondly, there are considerable differences in standards of living, incomes, and access to medical and other social benefits in different parts of the country. Peninsular Malaysia, where the majority of the population lives, has much higher standards of living compared to East Malaysia.

Since 1970, the Malaysian government has actively implemented social policies aimed at the elimination of poverty and social inequality, and the development of a social welfare system. The communal unrest of 1969 prompted the Malaysian government to introduce the New Economic Policy (NEP). This 20-year program established state support of poor communities and access to education and social benefits for Malays and indigenous people (the Bumiputera). This latter aspect included the establishment of privileged access to public services, the granting of land rights, preference in education and training, and job quotas in the public sector. In the 1980s, Malaysia's leadership envisioned the formation of the Malay Baru (New Malays), a better-educated, politically and socially active people able to live in harmony with other communities. In the early 1990s the government relaxed some privileges and reduced some quotas for Bumiputera, making the social welfare system more inclusive and accessible to a wider range of people than it had been before.

The recent economic turbulence of 1997 and 1998 brought higher unemployment, higher prices, and lower incomes. This particularly affected the most vulnerable social groups of society, not only in rural areas, but also in major urban centers. Nevertheless, there were no large groups of people migrating from the country, and Malaysia's quality of life remained much better than in neighboring Indonesia, the Philippines, or Thailand. Around 6.8 percent of the population lived below the poverty line in 1997, most of them in East Malaysia (for comparison, in the neighboring Philippines 32 percent of the population lived below the poverty line in 1997). The economic recovery of 1999 and 2000 reversed the decline in incomes and standards of living.

WORKING CONDITIONS

During the last decade the Malaysian labor force has grown rapidly, due to robust economic growth and the large proportion of young people born in the 1970s. In 1999, the Malaysian labor force was 9.3 million people, with an unemployment rate of 3 percent, or around 270,000. Due to rapid expansion of all sectors of the national economy, there has been a high demand for all types of workers, especially skilled labor in the manufacturing sector and well-trained professionals in the services sector. This led in turn to better wages and rapidly improving working conditions.

The Malaysian government is trying to develop better education at all levels, as it wants to attract skill-intensive industries and services to the country. Primary education is compulsory, and young people may choose between a large number of both public and private schools and colleges. There is an established system of vocational and technical training. A number of Malaysians receive their education overseas, many of them with state support, although during 1997 and 1998, many students returned home. The most popular destinations for overseas education are the United States, England, Canada, and Australia. However, even the rapidly growing numbers of educated and trained Malaysians cannot meet market demand. In the late 1990s, Malaysia experienced shortages of medical doctors, information technology specialists, and professionals in various other areas. In order to meet growing demand of university-trained professionals, in 1994 Malaysia allowed foreign universities to establish campuses in the country.

The higher wages and better working conditions attract large numbers of temporary workers from neighboring Indonesia, Bangladesh, Thailand, and the Philippines. Many of them are hired to work in the low-skill and low-wage construction and service sectors and on agricultural plantations. However, Malaysia has also experienced an inflow of illegal foreign workers, prompting the government to implement harsh detention measures and mass deportation of unauthorized arrivals. Malaysian law does not allow foreign workers to join trade unions. The working conditions of illegal workers are generally inferior to those enjoyed by legally contracted workers. However, labor contractors may be prosecuted if workers complain about abuses or other problems.

The first trade unions appeared in Malaysia before World War II. There are currently 544 trade unions in Malaysia, engaging in the union activities of just over 11 percent of the workforce. Most of the private-sector trade unions are members of the Malaysian Trade Union Congress (MTUC), which was established in 1951. Around 90 unions of public-and civil-sector employees are members of the Congress of Unions of Employees in the Public and Civil Services (CUEPACS). Unions maintain their independence from the government and from political parties; by law, union officers may not hold principal positions in political organizations. However, some individual trade union leaders have been elected to the parliament, and the leader of MTUC joined the ruling party in 1997. The Malaysian Trade Union Act guarantees the right to form or participate in trade union activities, but it restricts the right to strike, calling for "socially responsible behavior." Strikes are extremely rare in Malaysia for several reasons, including strong demand in the labor market and the government's promotion of "industrial harmony." In case of labor disputes, the Ministry of Human Resources may intervene in conciliation procedures; in extreme cases, disputants may refer their case to the Industrial Court. The Industrial Relations Act prohibits employers from taking actions against workers for participating in lawful trade-union activities. There is no national minimum wage, although there have been calls recently from trade unions for its introduction. The Employment Act of 1955 established a maximum 48-hour working week.

The Malaysian Constitution prohibits forced and bonded labor by children, and the government claims that it rigorously enforces child-labor provisions. However, the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions estimates that 75,000 children are engaged as laborers. Faced with the shortages in the workforce, the Malaysian government encourages women to work, providing various initiatives. Currently, more than 35 percent of the labor force are women. However, unionization among women is generally lower than among men.

COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

1400s. The Kingdom of Malacca is founded.

1511. Malacca is conquered by the Portuguese under Afonso de Albuquerque.

1641. The Dutch establish control in the region.

1786. The Sultan of Kedah leases the island of Pinang to the British East India Company.

1819. Singapore is founded by Sir Thomas Raffles.

1824. Malacca falls to Britain.

1888. British North Borneo and Sarawak become British protectorates.

1896. The British form a federation, comprised of Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan, and Pahang.

1909. British acquire control over Kedah, Kelantan, Perak, and Terengannu—the 4 northern states in Peninsular Malaysia—from Siam (now Thailand).

1921. Port Singapore becomes the principal base for British Navy in East Asia.

1942. Malay Peninsula is occupied by Japanese Army.

1945. Malaya is liberated from Japanese occupation.

1946. British impose a system known as the Malayan Union and grant political rights to immigrants.

1948. The Federation of Malaya is established.

1948. State of Emergency is declared in response to armed campaign by the Malayan Communist Party.

1957. Malaya is granted independence within the British Commonwealth.

1963. Malaysia is expanded to form the Federation of Malaysia; Singapore joins the federation.

1965. Singapore leaves the federation.

1967. Malaysia becomes a founding member of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN).

1969. Serious rioting breaks out in the capital city, Kuala Lumpur; more than 200 people killed.

1970. The Malaysian government introduces the New Economic Policy (NEP).

1981. Dr. Mahathir bin Muhammad becomes prime minister of Malaysia.

1983. Prime minister imposes restrictions on the power of the Yang di-Pertuan Agang and the Council of Rulers.

1995. The ruling political coalition Barisan Nasional wins parliamentary elections in landslide victory.

1997. In response to the Asian financial crisis, the government imposes restrictions on currency trading and announces public spending cuts.

1998. National Economic Action Council is established to advise the Malaysian Cabinet on the economic crisis.

1998. Prime Minister Mahathir bin Muhammad dismisses his apparent successor, Finance Minister and Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim.

1999. The ruling political coalition Barisan Nasional wins parliamentary elections while losing 14 seats in the parliament.

FUTURE TRENDS

Malaysia's economy has benefited from several factors, including a stable political environment, an effective bureaucracy, flexible economic policies, export-oriented industrialization, and inflow of foreign direct investments (FDIs). This has brought prosperity and a high level of confidence to the majority of the population. The country has a healthy, rapidly growing economy, although its government has often been criticized for state intervention into economic development and the imposition of capital and currency exchange controls in 1998. However, subsequent events have shown that these were temporary measures, and the government is considering re-liberalization of its economy. Inflation remains low and is under control. Malaysian currency exchange is still tightly regulated and pegged to the U.S. dollar; with the economic recovery, the Malaysian ring-git might be floated again within the next few years. In 1999 and 2000, Malaysia achieved strong economic recovery and, if economic growth at an annual rate of 7.4 percent continues, within the next 20-30 years Malaysia may join the international club of developed nations. In 1998, as if to announce that it had arrived on the world stage, Kuala Lumpur saw the completion of the stunning Petronas Towers, the world's tallest skyscraper complex.

Nevertheless, there are several issues to be addressed. Malaysia's government has developed close relations with its private businesses. These "special relations" with some business groups have allegedly led to the emergence of political cronies with unlimited access to public resources. The experience of neighboring Indonesia shows that this is a dangerous trend that could negatively affect economic development in the future. In 1998-99, Malaysia was widely criticized for establishing increasingly tough political control of the country, and for some harsh measures against the opposition. It remains to be seen whether these measures have in the long term strengthened political stability or undermined it. The political succession of the current leadership will also be a problem. In neighboring Indonesia and Thailand, changes in the political leadership have led to destabilization of the political environment.

In the longer term, Malaysia will need to maintain its international competitiveness, since there is growing competition from other emerging markets for FDIs and for the transfer of modern technologies. Although political and social unrest in neighboring Indonesia and the Philippines has no direct effect on Malaysia, it threatens social stability by causing influxes of refugees and by undermining regional stability. Environmental issues are also important for Malaysia in the longer term as deforestation and global climate change may undermine the country's agriculture, which still plays an important role in the national economy. The recent forest fires in the Indonesian part of Borneo affected not only East Malaysia, but Peninsular Malaysia as well, by injecting hazardous air pollution. This sort of thing, if repeated, may undermine tourism, another important sector of the Malaysian economy. The forecast global economic slowdown may also negatively effect the export-oriented Malaysian economy.

DEPENDENCIES

Malaysia has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bank Negara Malaysia (Central Bank of Malaysia). "CurrentHighlights." <http://www.bnm.gov.my>. Accessed March 2001.

Department of Statistics, Malaysia. <http://www.statistics.gov.my>.Accessed March 2001.

Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Malaysia. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2000.

Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Report: Malaysia. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, November 2000.

Gomez, Terence E., and K.S. Jomo. Malaysia's Political Economy: Politics, Patronage and Profits, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

The Government of Malaysia. Prime Minister's Office. <http:// www.smpke.jpm.my>. Accessed March 2001.

Grouch, H. Government and Society in Malaysia. Singapore:Cornell University Press, 1996.

International Financial Statistics Yearbook, 1999. InternationalMonetary Fund, 1999.

Jomo, K. S., and Greg Felker. Technology, Competitiveness, and the State: Malaysia's Industrial Technology Policies. London: Routledge, 1999.

Khoo, B. T. Paradoxes of Mahathirism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange. <http://www.klse-ris.com.my>.Accessed March 2001.

Lucas, Robert E. B., and Donald Verry. Restructuring the Malaysian Economy: Development and Human Resources. London: MacMillan Press, 1999.

Malaysian External Trade Development Corporation. <http:// www.matrade.gov.my>. Accessed March 2001.

The New Straits Times. <http://www.nstp.com.my>. AccessedMarch 2001.

U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World Factbook 2000: Malaysia. <http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/my.html>. Accessed March 2001.

—Rafis Abazov

CAPITAL:

Kuala Lumpur.

MONETARY UNIT:

Malaysian ringgit (also known as the Malaysian dollar). One Malaysian ringgit (RM1) equals 100 sens. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 20, and 50 sens. Paper currency is in denominations of RM2, 5, 20, 50, and 100.

CHIEF EXPORTS:

Electronic equipment, petroleum and liquefied natural gas, chemicals, palm oil, wood and wood products, rubber, textiles.

CHIEF IMPORTS:

Machinery and equipment, chemicals, food, fuel, lubricants.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:

US$229.1 billion (at purchasing power parity, 1999 est.).

BALANCE OF TRADE:

Exports: US$83.5 billion (1999 est.). Imports: US$61.5 billion (1999 est.).