IRAN

HISTORY & BACKGROUND

The Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI), a country located in the Middle East, covers an area of 1,648,00 square kilometers and is surrounded on the north by the former Soviet Union and the Caspian Sea, on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Oman Sea, and on the west by Iraq and Turkey. The climate is arid and the terrain mountainous. Roughly 20 percent of its landmass is desert and infertile, 55 percent is natural pasture, and 8 percent is forest. Only the remaining 10 to 15 percent is arable.

The population as of July 2000 was estimated to be 65.6 million. More than half of the country's population (61 percent) is between 15 and 64 years old, and 34 percent is under 14 years of age, making Iran one of the youngest countries in the world. Recent figures show that this might be changing, however. The population's annual growth rate was estimated in 2000 at .83 percent, a significant decrease from the 3.6 percent that was estimated between 1976 and 1986—an economically disastrous burden believed to be caused by the absence of a family planning program during the height of the revolutionary period that overthrew the former ruler, the Shah of Iran.

Iran is commonly misperceived as an Arab country, but in truth, its Arab population comprises only 3 percent of its ethnic identity. The major ethnic groups are Persian (51 percent) and Azeri (24 percent). And, in fact, Arabic is only used in religious contexts and expressions, while Farsi (Persian) is spoken by 58 percent of the population. Other spoken languages include Turkic, Kurdish, Luri, Balochi, and Turkish. Of these, only Turkic is spoken by a significant portion of the population (26 percent). The official religion, in accordance with Article 12 of the Islamic constitution, is the Jafari Faith of the 12 Imams. About 99 percent of the population is Muslim, 89 percent of which belong to the Shi'a sect. Religious minorities in Iran include Christians, Jews, and followers of the ancient Persian faith, Zoroastrianism.

Iran is one of the Middle East's main reservoirs of oil, and in recent years numerous other industries have developed and expanded, but agriculture still employs roughly 33 percent of the workforce. Twenty-five percent of the population is involved in industry, while 42 percent work in other service positions. With a 1999 unemployment rate estimated at 25 percent, an inflation rate of 30 percent, and a real growth rate of 1 percent, the Iranian economy has suffered from continuous stagnation since the revolution. In 1996, approximately 53 percent of the population was living below the poverty line.

Historical Evolution: In 1979 the Islamic revolution ended Pahlavi rule and the ancient tradition of monarchical government from which it claimed authority. The Pahlavi's, a relatively short-lived dynasty in the history of Persian Civilization, seized power from the Qajars in 1925. That occurred 20 years after the Constitutional Revolution had limited their (the Qajars) authority and created in Iran a constitutional monarchy, recognizing the people as a source of legitimacy.

The tradition of absolute monarchical rule dates back to the sixth century B.C. and the Achaemenid Empire, a successful regime that made the subsequent Persian empire not only one of the most powerful of the ancient world, but also the most progressive. Its contributions to art, literature, science, and law make it one of the seedbeds of civilization. The Islamic foundations of Iranian government were not introduced until the Islamic conquest of the seventh century, which had a profound impact on Iranian culture in general by introducing a new language, social, and legal system. In the ninth century, the Islamic Empire broke up and Farsi again replaced Arabic as the spoken language in a reconstituted Iran; however, by that time, Islam had taken hold. The Safavid dynasty (1501-1732) made Shi'a Islam the state religion, institutionalizing its preeminence and creating a presence in Iranian government and education that would not be seriously challenged by its rulers for hundreds of years. Under the Qajar dynasty, though, the traditional Islam-based approach to education began to show its inadequacy, as Iranian intellectuals increasingly stressed the need for the inclusion of Western educational mechanisms and a national educational system; this was seen as a response to European power. However, very few intellectuals went so far as to advocate a separation of education from religion. In fact, a contributing factor to the demise of the Qajar dynasty was its perceived lack of religious authority. Another important factor was its weakness in the face of European power.

Despite European influence on the Qajar's by both Britain and Russia—at one point those two had divided Iran into spheres of influence—Iran was never colonized or fully controlled by any European authority and has traditionally maintained a fierce independence from western society. The westernization of education was seen as a means of empowering the country to fight western dominance—a paradox that plagued many reformists of the period. When the Constitutional Revolution took place in 1905, the intellectuals who inspired it focused on developing primary education and pushed through the Supplementary Constitutional Law of 1907. The law guaranteed the freedom of "acquisition . . . and instruction in all sciences, arts and crafts" and established The Ministry of Sciences and Arts to govern all educational institutions. In 1910 the Ministry of Education was established. This was the first real attempt to nationalize the educational system. The constitution also mandated the inclusion of Islamic studies in school curriculums and gave the Ministry of Education the power to exclude any textbook seen to be in conflict with the tenets of Islam.

The rise to power of Reza Shah Pahlavi reflected the failure of the constitutional experiment to live up to the challenges of western power, as was made painfully evident during World War I. The influence of the Pahlavi's on education was profound, for it was under their leader-ship that the basic educational structure and system was developed and westernized. As of 2000, the education structure in Iran continued to reflect the French system, which was selected as a model under Pahlavi rule: primary, secondary, and higher education, with degrees at the university level, including bachelor's, master's, and doctoral. It was under the Pahlavis that the first university in Tehran was established as a coeducational institution in 1920, and after World War II other institutions of higher learning were established in Tabriz, Esfahan, Mashhad, Shiraz, and Ahvaz.

The Ministry of Education was further empowered and was given the responsibility of regulating all public and private schools. There was also an increase in students studying abroad, as the Shah Reza sought to bring western advancements to his country. Most notably, the educational system was secularized, with the emphasis on training Iranian youth to succeed in modern occupations—especially science and administration. In the eyes of many Iranians, especially the clergy and leftist political groups, westernization became an increasing trend in the development of education as Pahlavi Rule passed to Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. And in fact, the educational system was a high-profile example of how the regime supported modernization. Textbooks used at that time downplayed religious history and emphasized loyalty, modernity, and nationalism. Under the Pahlavi's, the vatan or mihan (motherland)—and a citizen's commitment to it—was the highest value, and the purpose of education was to train students to serve the needs of the motherland above any other authority, including religion.

The success of the Pahlavi regime in terms of education literacy and enrollment is difficult to judge because there are few reliable statistics available before 1940. It is known that although the Pahlavis were never able to fully realize a national educational system, they did make significant progress. In 1940, only 10 percent of all elementary-age children were enrolled in school, and less than 1 percent of youths between the ages of 12 and 20 were in secondary school. By 1978, these statistics had improved dramatically, as 75 percent of all elementary-age children were enrolled in primary schools, and nearly 50 percent of all teenagers were attending secondary schools. It is also known that although the Mohammed Reza Shah made significant attempts at improving literacy, the illiteracy rate in 1976 was still 63 percent.

The rise to power of the Iranian ulama—religious scholars—was a manifestation of public dissatisfaction with the Shah's attempt to modernize and westernize a nation that did not have a strong industrial infrastructure and was culturally and spiritually dependent on its Islamic traditions. When economic crises caused by a fluctuating oil market made class and wealth distinctions intolerable, the absence of meaningful spiritual and cultural leadership became intolerable as well. What the Islamic theory of political and spiritual leadership, the velayet-i-faqih, offered was a strong leadership that, in theory, placed the leader of the republic in a position to interpret and administer the will of God. What it did not provide, in terms of education, was a resolution to the conflict between modernizing the education system so that Iran could compete with western nations, and maintaining an identity as an Islamic nation. The new regime also had to face many cultural and economic challenges that effected educational practice and principle, including a major war with Iraq, a high rate of illiteracy, and a population explosion.

CONSTITUTIONAL & LEGAL FOUNDATIONS

In Article 3, the IRI constitution of 1979 establishes the goal of "free education and physical training for everyone at all levels, and the facilitation and expansion of higher education." Additionally, article 30 requires that the government "provide all citizen with free education up to secondary school," and "expand free higher education to the extent required by the country for attaining self-sufficiency." To ensure the expansion of literacy and enrollment in the public educational system, the Second Economic, Social, and Cultural Development plan (1995-99) made education not only free, but also compulsory, requiring school age children and illiterate adults under age 40 to attend education and literacy courses. The constitution does not touch on issues of educational practice other than to establish the importance of intellectual freedom and equality based on Islamic revolutionary principles. Because of the doctrine of velayet-I faqih, there is no separation between the Qur'an and the ideological and legal foundations of the educational system. Furthermore, interpretation of what Islamic revolutionary principle is comes from the religious leader, the Ayatullah. The aims of the educational system envisioned by the Ayatullah Khumayni were made apparent in 1980 when he called for the formation of a Council for Cultural Revolution, requiring that education be in keeping with Islamic culture and that educators be committed to the ideals of the revolution.

This effort began the Islamization of Iranian education. The first step was to stop the secularization of the system and to purge those academics that did not embrace revolutionary principle. Efforts to forcibly de-secularize the university system led to several violent clashes, the suspension of higher education for three years, the closing of 200 institutes of higher learning, and a radical decrease in enrollment for those institutions that re-opened in 1983. Enrollment at the University of Tehran, for example, dropped from 17,000 to 4,500 students, and the percentage of women's enrollment in institutions of higher learning plunged from 40 percent in 1980 to 10 percent in 1983. The emphasis on revolutionary commitment over expertise also led to a lowering of overall educational quality and a reduction in the emphasis placed on the necessity for sufficient skilled manpower needed to achieve economic goals.

Like the Pahlavi regime, the ulama saw the purpose of education as a means of supporting the ideology of the government. At the primary and secondary level "Islamization" and "Westoxification" mainly focused on changing textbooks to those that transmitted acceptable ideological beliefs and social behaviors. Particularly in the humanities, textbooks were purged of all ideas that were thought to promote western values and were rewritten to promote the concept of a New Islamic citizen in terms of political beliefs, cultural values, and role models.

A national literacy campaign was central to the government's plans for cultural Islamization, and one of Khumayni's first acts after the revolution was to establish the Literacy Movement of Iran. The regime also placed great emphasis on primary education and teacher training as a means of propagating revolutionary ideals. Especially in the early 1980s, a commitment to Islamic revolutionary principles was more important than competency at nearly all levels of instruction, especially within the Literary Movement Organization (LMO).

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM—OVERVIEW

The precollege educational system in the Islamic Republic of Iran has not changed significantly since the rule of the Pahlavis and is modeled after the French system. It consists of one year of preprimary education at age 5, five years of primary education (from age 6 to 11), three years of lower secondary, or guidance, school (from age 11 to 14), and three years of secondary school (from age 14 to 17). Students who wish to enroll in a university have to take one year of pre-university training and pass the National Entrance Examination. Secondary vocational and technical education is also available. At all levels, the language of instruction is Farsi, except at the University of Shiraz, where English is used. In accordance with Article 30 of the IRI constitution, education through age 11 is both free and compulsory. The official length of the academic year for preprimary to lower secondary levels is 10 months, but the official starting date is subject to change. Traditionally it has run from September to June. Most universities operate on a similar time frame. The grading system through all levels of education is based on a 20-point scale, with an A being worth four points and an F worth zero points. To graduate, a C average in all courses is required.

PREPRIMARY & PRIMARY EDUCATION

Preprimary education is a one-year period in which five-year-old children are prepared for primary school. The main goals of preprimary education are:

• To contribute to the physical, mental, emotional, and social growth in young children based on religious and ethical principles
• To develop the abilities and talents of students in order to prepare them for future studies
• To promote the Persian language, particularly in the provinces, which have different native languages
• To prepare children for social relationships and cooperation
• To help families with low incomes by creating a safe educational atmosphere to train their young children

The curriculum at this level is standardized through use of two teaching manuals titled Content and Methods of Instruction in Pre-Primary Centers, Volumes I and II. These demonstrate appropriate behavioral and pedagogical techniques as well as a general curriculum focusing on basic life skills, natural sciences, hygiene, literacy, history, and religious history and practice.

Primary education in Iran is split into two types: elementary and lower secondary, or guidance, schools. The elementary level is a four-year program and includes religious training and the study of the Qur'an, Persian composition, dictation, Persian reading comprehension, social studies, arts, hygiene and natural science, mathematics, and physical education. Special emphasis at this level is given to reading comprehension. In grade one, half of the 24 allotted teaching hours are set aside for this discipline. The main objectives of primary education are:

• Creation of a favorable atmosphere for the purification and moral superiority of students
• Development of student's physical strength
• Enabling the students to read, write, and upgrade their calculating skills, and providing necessary training on proper social behavior
• Instruction for individual hygiene and providing necessary advice on how to behave at home as well as in society

All subject musts be passed in order for students to pass on to the guidance cycle. Textbooks are standardized and must be prepared and approved by the Ministry of Education. The dropout rate at the primary level from 1993 to 1994 was 1.9 percent. The repetition rates for the same year varied depending on grade level but were highest in grades one (9.5 percent) and five (8.7 percent). In the 1994-95 academic year, the transition rate from the primary to lower secondary level was 94.2 percent.

The lower secondary, or guidance, cycle (doreh-e rahnamaii) is a three-year program in which the emphasis on instruction changes from teaching general knowledge to an effort at helping a student discover an area of specialization. The goals of the guidance cycle include:

• Developing a student's moral and intellectual abilities
• Increasing the student's experiences and general knowledge
• Helping students to continue the habits of discipline and scientific imagination that have been taught in elementary school
• Diagnosing individual preferences and talents in students so that they may be directed towards suitable studies and professions

At this level the subjects of history, geography, Arabic, vocational training, foreign languages, and defense preparation are added to the curriculum. Mathematics and natural sciences are given a larger portion of the 28 allotted teaching hours—four to five hours—although Persian language and literature remains the focus of instruction. In the area of religious training, religious minority groups are given their own special subjects. Students who successfully pass a regional examination conducted at the end of the cycle receive a Certificate of General Education/General Certificate of Guidance Education. No statistics on dropout rates were available for this level. In the 1993-94 school year, grade repetition levels ranged from 10 to 13 percent depending on year. For the 1994-95 school year, the transition rate from lower secondary or guidance school to upper secondary level was 98 percent.

SECONDARY EDUCATION

Depending on their tested aptitudes and potential, at this point students may choose to pursue one of two possible courses of study: The theoretical branch, or the technical and vocational education (TVE) stream.

The theoretical branch is comprised of general academic disciplines such as mathematics, physics, empirical sciences, human sciences, and economics. Students in this curriculum must take 63 units of general study and an additional 36 units in one field of specialization. After completing this track, they take the national examinations and, if successful, are awarded the Diplom-Motevaseteh making them eligible for the pre-university course—a one year program designed to prepare them for university. Successfully completing pre-university study earns them the Pre-University Certificate and the right to take the Konkur, or National Entrance Examination. The vocational and technical branch (TVE), Kar-Denesh (knowledge-skill branch), and the integrated associate degree in the technical and vocational stream comprise the technical/vocational track of Iranian secondary education. The vocational and technical branch students take applied science courses designed to train them in the agricultural trades. Here they can earn a trade certificate. The Kar-Denesh track develops semiskilled and skilled workers, foremen, and supervisors who can earn second-degree skill certificates. The integrated associate degree is a five-year course following lower secondary education designed to develop highly skilled technicians. These students may also opt for the pre-university stream after three years in the program. In 1986, the Ministry of Education listed 30 fields of study in the TVE system and over 400 in the Kar-Denesh.

Teaching hours at this level range from 30 to 32 and curriculum varies significantly depending on the individual student's field of study or vocational path.

HIGHER EDUCATION

Types of—Public & Private: Until very recently, higher education in the IRI has been completely state-run and public, with only a small number of private institutions opening in the past few years. Iran has 46 universities, 60 postsecondary technical institutions, about 200 colleges/higher institutes/professional schools, and a number of teacher training colleges. While there are no exact numbers available for private institutions, there were at least four as of 1997. The most prominent of Iran's public universities include The University of Tehran, Tarbiat Modaress University, Shahid Beheshti University, Shiraz University, Tabriz University, and Isfahan University.

Admission Procedures: In order to apply for university admission a student must possess the Diplom-Motevaseteh, complete the pre-university course, and take the National Entrance Examination. The transition rate from upper secondary to postsecondary level (including private and public), was reported by IRI's Ministry of Education to be 40 percent in 1996. Those numbers are misleading however, because they combine vocational and theoretical tracks. In the traditional academic disciplines, the percentage of successful applicants to university is much lower—only 12 percent in 1991. High marks on the National Entrance Examination do not necessarily guarantee admission into a university, partially because of the limited number of spaces available to a highly educated and youthful population and partially because of preferential treatment given to soldiers and veterans. While there are no statistics available concerning the enrollment numbers for foreign students, they can be admitted providing they have a visa and hold a Secondary School Leaving Certificate with a minimum average of 62.5 percent for studies leading to a bachelor's degree.

Administration: The administration of higher education is connected by law and policy to the Iranian government by the concept of velayet-i-faqih, but the tight control over educational administration is a reflection of the power that student movements have traditionally had in Iranian politics. To a large degree, the revolution itself was a student movement, and, especially in the 1990s, unrest and protest against restrictive government policies were centered on university campuses. So the strong connection between the university system and the government has been a political necessity. Any decisions made at the institutional level must be approved by either The Ministry of Culture and Higher Education and its Supreme Council on Higher Education Planning or the Ministry of Health, Treatment, and Medical Education, depending on the nature of the institution. Decisions regarding the policies of higher education are made by these organizations under the approval of the Islamic Parliament, the Cabinet, and the Higher Council of Cultural Revolution. University administration is undertaken by the Board of Trustees, affirmed and appointed by the Higher Council of Cultural Revolution. By law, these trustees set university budgets, research finances, and teaching salaries, subject to the approval of the council. They are also responsible for supervision of the effective administration of educational research, cultural affairs, student, official, financial, construction, and discipline affairs, scientific services, all national and international relationships of the university or institution, and the coordinating and leading of different units and departments.

The Educational Council forms the second institutional level of university administration. This council is made up of members of the administrative body and the deans of faculties, junior colleges, and research departments, as well as faculty teachers who are members of each institution's specialty council. Some of the duties of this council include the study and approval of short-term educational and research projects and new educational courses or fields.

Tuition & Academic Year: In 1998 tuition expenses for students at the university level varied from 0 to 450,000 Iranian rials, depending on the level of aid. The academic year runs roughly from September to June.

Programs & Degrees: Much as in the West, university level studies in Iran are divided into three stages, associate's degree (Kardani) or bachelor's degree (Karshenasi), masters degree (Karshenasi-arshad), and doctorate. At the undergraduate level, however, there are differences, depending on whether or not the student desires to continue on to the graduate level. A student desiring an associate's degree must complete two years of study (67 to 72 credit units). Associate-level curricula include traditional academic disciplines such as medicine, technical engineering, and agriculture. To receive a noncontinuous bachelor's degree a student must then complete another two years of study (65 to 70 credit units). And if he or she wishes to continue to the graduate level, that student must complete at least 140 credit units and pass another competitive entrance examination. A master's degree in arts and science requires two more years of study and another 28 to 32 credits (depending on the program), including the submission of a thesis and a passing grade on a comprehensive examination. A master's degree in architecture is more rigorous, requiring six-and-a-half years of study (a total of 172 to 182 units).

At the doctoral level, specialized degrees (or professional doctorates) are offered in the areas of medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, and veterinary medicine. These programs require six years of full-time study (210-290 semester credits). For the medical degree, a student must complete seven semesters of study (121 units), a nine-month externship (95 units), an 18-month internship (68 units), and a doctoral thesis (6 units) for a total of 290 units. After completing this program, a student may then enroll in a residency program in different fields (three to five years beyond the doctorate). In order to pursue a doctor of philosophy, or Ph.D., prospective applicants must hold a master's degree or a professional doctorate degree and pass an entrance test set by the individual university, as well as an interview with that university. They must also submit at least two recommendations from former professors. There is no age limitation, except in cases of scholarship (33 years). The Ph.D. must be completed in four-and-a-half years and requires 42 to 50 units. After completing 30 semester units, students must pass a comprehensive examination before continuing to the second phase of the program, in which they must successfully complete a dissertation and defend it in front of a dissertation committee.

Outside of the university system, there are abundant opportunities for postsecondary education, especially in vocational and technical fields. In fact technical and vocational institutions greatly outnumber universities. Technical institutions offer programs leading to the Fogh Diplom, or First-Class Technicians Certificate. Such programs are open to graduates of four-year technical and general secondary schools.

Study Abroad: Since 1979 the pursuit of education in foreign countries was nearly eliminated by the Islamic regime as an effect of Islamization and Westoxification policies. The year before the revolution, there were 13,107 students sent abroad for study. Between the years of 1983 and 1988, that number was only 1,395. In the 1990s restrictions were eased and the number rose to around 3,000. The United States has the highest concetration of Iranian students studying abroad. Other countries of educational preference include Germany, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy. Due to fears of western influence, the government made it very difficult for many students studying abroad to return to Iran upon graduation from foreign universities. This too began to change in the 1990s, and the easing of that policy is another reflection of the more pragmatic goals of the IRI in handling crippling economic problems, such as manpower shortage and "brain-drain"—the emigration of intellectuals and highly skilled technicians from Iran that has occurred since the revolution.

ADMINISTRATION, FINANCE, & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Governmental Educational Agencies: Important governmental institutions and agencies related to education in Iran include the Ministry of Education; the Higher Council of Education; the Ministry of Higher Education; the Ministry of Health, Treatment, and Medical Education the Literary Movement Organization; the National Council for Scientific and Industrial Research; the Institute for Research and Planning in Higher Education; the Exceptional Education Organization; and the Technical and Vocational Training Organization of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs.

Ministry of Education: Iran's educational system and its administration is highly centralized under the Ministry of Education, which in turn is responsible to the Islamic Parliament, the Cabinet, and the Higher Council of Cultural Revolution. In essence this organization is responsible for all educational policies relating to primary and secondary education and the setting and implementation of objectives relating to them, from forming the makeup of its Higher Council of Education to the development, printing, and distribution of textbooks. Other significant duties include procurement of facilities; the creation and supervision of vocational, academic, and physical education programs; the supervision of teacher training; insurance of the freedom and access to education for all citizens; the financial and educational support of the children and families of both martyrs and war dead; the coordination of defense training within the schools; the support and development of special education; development of the arts; student recruitment; support for the Literary Movement Organization; and cooperation with all other significant educational offices. All provincial and regional offices report to the ministry.

Educational Budget: In 1996 the budget for the Ministry of Education was 6.1 billion rials, or 3.8 percent of the gross national budget. These funds are divided among administrative, research, training, and procurement, with each level of education allotted specific funds. By far the greatest expenditures in the 1995-96 academic year were for primary education (1.6 million rials) and upper secondary education (.93 million rials). The expenditure for higher education and research is budgeted separately to the Ministry of Higher Education and was 1.6 million rials for the same academic year. These figures reveal the emphasis placed on primary education in the IRI.

Educational Research: Fields of educational research taken on by the Ministry of Education are divided into three areas of study—educational, psychological and social, and economic. Educational research relates to problems concerning objectives, curricula, methodologies, manpower training, organizational inadequacies, and policies for management and evaluation. Research on psychological and social issues relating to children, juveniles, and youth concerns personality development, social participation, and problems related to leisure time. Economic research studies the appropriate allocation of funding and its relation to the achievement of educational objectives.

NONFORMAL EDUCATION

Nonformal education is conducted in the IRI through the Literacy Movement Organization, adult education classes, TVE programs, and distance education.

Literary Movement Organization: Established in 1984, the Literary Movement Organization (LMO) was created to encounter the disastrously high rate of national illiteracy inherited from the Pahlavi regime. Its main functions include the provision of adult education and education for children outside of the educational system, training instructors and qualified Muslim teachers committed to the principles of velayat-I faqih and to the Iranian constitution, preparing and adopting textbooks in keeping with the Islamic faith, promoting cultural awareness and revolutionary commitment, and attracting citizens to literacy classes.

Existing statistical reports show that the LMO covered almost 2.8 million people in the 1994-95 academic year. Of that number 78.9 percent were women and 21.1 percent men, while 53.7 percent were rural and 42.7 percent urban. Because of almost universal enrollment at the primary school level, 89 percent of the learners were adults with the average age of 29 years.

Literacy education is split into two cycles, introductory and complementary. Curriculum for the first cycle includes reading, writing, dictation, and arithmetic. The second cycle, or final course, includes study of the Qu'ran, Islamic culture, composition, mathematics, experimental science, social science, dictation, and Persian language.

Adult Education: What is termed adult education by the IRI is really supplementary evening courses provided for those who were not able to finish their studies during prior periods. The youngest age of a learner in the "adult" education program is 18 years of age. In reality adult education in Iran is handled by the Literacy Movement Organization.

Technical-Vocational Programs: The Technical and Vocational Training Organization (TVTO) of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs is designed to prepare learners for the job market through instruction in necessary job skills. Training for the nonformal TVE is separated into three contexts: industrial, agricultural, and administrative and hygiene.

Distance Learning: Nonformal studies are offered as distance education at Payam-E-Noor University for holders of the Diplom-Motevaseteh. Courses last between five and eight years in fields such as education, mathematics, chemistry, and Persian literature. An associate's degree and bachelor's degree are awarded.

TEACHING PROFESSION

In the 1994-95 academic year, there were more than 500,000 teachers in the preprimary to upper secondary level. In accordance with "The Act of Coordinated Payment to State Employees," these professionals have salaries equivalent to those of regular public workers. The Ministry of Education places a high priority on teacher training, stating that "teachers have always played a significant role in education. So, the training of teachers should be of major concern in the changing of world future society."

Primary School & Lower Secondary Teacher Training: Primary school and lower secondary, or guidance, schoolteachers are trained in two years in teacher training centers (Daneshsari-rahnamai), where they obtain an associate's degree. In the technical/vocational sections, they are selected from graduates of technical and vocational schools.

Secondary School Teacher Training: Secondary school teachers must pass the National Entrance Examination, ask for a scholarship, and follow a four-year course leading to a bachelor's degree. Upper secondary school teachers are trained at Tarbiat Moallam University and the University for Teacher Education, both in Tehran.

Higher Education Teacher Training: Tarbiat Modares University has been established to train faculty members and researchers in different scientific fields.

SUMMARY

General Assessment: The educational system in Iran continues a process of philosophical transition that began with the revolution in 1979. Since the inception of Islamization, the government attempted to balance between the desire for cultural and spiritual independence from the West, and the desire to succeed as a modern nation in competition with the West. In the 1990s, economic demands and labor force necessities created some changes in the attitudes and goals of the fundamentalist administration. Both Rafsanjani and Khatami began to stress the need for expertise in the workforce, cultural awareness of western ideas, and a revitalized concept of modern Islam. This change was most evident in their attitudes toward women. While women were still encouraged to serve traditional roles in the family and subject to severe restrictions concerning dress and movement, they were also encouraged to pursue education and limited professional development.

In 1998 the freshman class in Iranian universities had more women than men. Between 1987 and 1994, the ratio of female students to total students for the educational system as a whole rose from 38 percent to 45.8 percent. Women's literacy has also shown significant improvement, rising from 25.5 percent in 1976 to 72.4 percent in 1996—largely due to the concentration on women's education in the LMO. The role of women in education in a key indicator of the tenuous balance the regime has attempted to strike between the maintenance of fundamentalist values and the pursuit of knowledge—both ideals inherent to the Shi'a faith. Other indications of liberalization in the educational system included a slight opening of opportunities for students to study abroad and the reinstitution of a private school system. By the year 2000, enrollment in private schools rose from 1 percent to 5 percent.

The most impressive achievement of the Islamic Regime in terms of objective data has been its Literacy Movement Organization. Though estimates vary, literacy in Iran rose from roughly 45 percent before the revolution to roughly 80 percent by 1996. Between the ages of 10 and 24, that percentage rises to roughly 93 percent. Considering the youthfulness of the population, this statistic holds great promise for the future. The success of the LMO has received international acclaim, and in 1998 The Corresponding Services Project of the Literacy Movement was awarded the Malcolm Adiseshiah Literacy Prize for innovative postliteracy and continuing adult education initiatives.

The regime has also made improvements in overall enrollment since the revolution. In 1991 the number of students enrolled in primary education was 9.1 million, and by 1996, enrollment at primary schools was almost universal. Enrollment at secondary schools and upper secondary schools had risen from prerevolutionary figures of 62 percent and 27 percent to 99 percent and 50 percent. Also, despite the initial effects of the revolution in driving down university enrollment, the number of students in postsecondary education from 1978 to 1995 rose from 175,000 to 1.2 million—though that figure decreases to roughly 600,000 for exclusively academic disciplines. Still, the education system of the IRI has significant challenges resulting in part from the split goal of education as a both a search for knowledge and as a device for the propagation of fundamental beliefs. An emphasis on tradition and commitment may encourage cultural stability, but it can also be a major inhibitor to innovation and development. Teaching techniques in Iran, for example, have remained somewhat stagnant, and too often the most highly qualified teachers are passed over for the more highly committed. This reality, coupled with the lack of employment opportunities for many educated Iranians, has resulted in a restive youth population and the emigration of some of the best minds in the country. One of the problems with women's education in Iran, for example, is that while the educational opportunities for women have increased, their opportunities to work outside the home remain limited. The Ministry of Education also admits to a teaching shortage, particularly in secondary education, caused by a lack of interest in the profession.

The future of education in Iran is difficult to assess because the country continues to undergo cultural change, although the Ministry's stated commitment to decentralization is promising. With the election of reform-minded President Hojjatoleslam Seyed Mohammad Khatami in 1997, there could be further philosophical and even institutional changes forthcoming.

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—Joel Peckham, Jr.