HONG KONG

HISTORY & BACKGROUND

Hong Kong's 646 square miles (1,040 square kilometers) are mostly small, uninhabited islands. Ninety percent of the 7 million people live on about 97 square miles (156 square kilometers) of land—Hong Kong Island, Kowloon peninsula, and the New Territories. The Mongkok section of Kowloon has more than 250,000 people per square mile, making it the most crowded area in the world. About 98 percent of the people are Chinese, most of whom have roots in the Guangzhou area, about 84 miles northwest across the channel on China's mainland.

During the last three decades of the twentieth century, Hong Kong developed into one of the world's leading financial capitals. Hong Kong claims to be the world's eighth largest trading economy, the world's busiest container port, Asia's leading air cargo hub, and the financial and banking center of Asia. Even before its return to the People's Republic of China (PRC) on July 1, 1997, Hong Kong was China's leading trading partner; this relationship has continued to expand. By the opening of the twenty-first century, Hong Kong employed more than 3 million workers in China and was a major investor in the Chinese economy.

After it took control of Hong Kong in 1843, the British colonial government never made much effort to educate the Chinese beyond training clerks and servants. Missionaries, however, did establish schools early. St. Paul's College opened in 1849 to train Chinese to become teachers and clergy. During the remaining of the century, only a small number of Chinese children attended government-sponsored schools. Most attended either private Chinese schools or no school at all.

In 1887, the College of Medicine was founded and, in the early twentieth century, this became a part of the first university in Hong Kong. The colony, however, remained a minor economic extension of the British empire until the 1950s. The victory of communists on mainland China transformed the colony into a dynamic center of economic activity. By 1960, about 2 million refugees from the mainland had escaped to Hong Kong. Some were educated, wealthy business leaders, especially in industries such as textiles and shipbuilding, but the vast majority were poor, uneducated peasants. Living in cardboard shacks in refugee camps and on boats in Hong Kong harbor, the majority of refugees provided a huge pool of workers for basic industries that needed unskilled labor. By the 1970s, Hong Kong businesses were converting from low-skilled industries to electronics, banking, and international trade, which required some basic literacy.

As a result, in 1971 Hong Kong authorities passed the first law requiring compulsory education for children between the ages of 6 and 11. By 1980, free education was guaranteed for children through grade nine, or junior secondary school. Three types of schools were established: government-operated public schools, privately owned and operated but with government aid (aided schools), and privately owned and operated without government aid.

Following the British system, Hong Kong's secondary students (seventh grade) were placed in classes according to their tests scores. This "banding" separated students into academic (science and humanities) and vocational tracks. Band 1 consists of students scoring in the highest 20 percent, and Band 5 is made up of students with scores in the lowest 20 percent. Also taken from the British system was the 6-3-2-2 system: primary school is six years; junior secondary school is three years; senior secondary school is two years; and Form Six (preparation for university entry exams) is two years.

Before the 1980s, there were very few institutions of higher education. The oldest is the University of Hong Kong (HKU) founded in 1911, closely followed by the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK), which was established in 1963. Several universities that existed earlier than the 1980s were originally postsecondary institutions, but not degree-granting university institutions.

In the 1960s about 15 percent of the population had completed senior secondary school. By 1991, the percentage had grown to 44 percent. Attendance at universities also experienced rapid growth, from 15,381 students in 1975 to 60,289 students in 1995. Even with the rapid expansion of education in the late 1990s, about 45 percent of the population aged 25 years and older had not received any secondary schooling.

CONSTITUTIONAL & LEGAL FOUNDATION

Free and compulsory primary school education in Hong Kong began in 1971. By 1978 the government had expanded free education to children up to 15-years-old, covering primary and junior secondary school, grades one through nine. Then in the 1990s, the Hong Kong government analyzed the educational system and set down detailed plans for the twenty-first century. The Hong Kong Board of Education (BoE), which is a statutory advisory body of the Education Department (EdD), reported that "the aims of Hong Kong education were not made explicit until a formal document School Education in Hong Kong: A Statement of Aims was published by the Education and Manpower Branch (EMB) in 1993."

The EMB is the top governmental agency responsible for education and training. In addition to supervising policies, budgets, and programs, the EMB prepares reports and proposals for Hong Kong's ruling Legislative Council. Established in 1984, the EdD manages daily educational affairs. Its committees and subcommittees investigate, research, and propose policies to the EMB. Schools are evaluated regularly by the department's Advisory Inspectorate to make sure they are following official policies.

In 1992 the Curriculum Development Institute (CDI) was created as a wing of the EdD to develop curriculum for primary and secondary schools. Its major role is developing and supporting the transition to the new curriculum that stresses independent and analytical thinking skills; the use of new technology, including computers; the new ties with the mainland; and life-long learning skills. The CDI works closely with the Curriculum Development Council (CDC), which evaluates and proposes curriculum from the preprimary through secondary school levels. The CDC reports directly to the Chief Executive of Hong Kong.

Vocational and technical training fall under the responsibility of the Vocational Training Council (VTC), founded in 1982. This organization offers courses for technical and vocational careers. The VTC sponsors programs in a wide variety of occupations, from Chinese cuisine and hospitality to seaman and welding training.

The Hong Kong Examination Authority (HKEA) was created in 1975 to develop and administer a variety of examinations, ranging from testing for professional and commercial licenses to the two major secondary school city-wide examinations: The Hong Kong Certificate of Education (HKCEE) and the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination (HKALE).

On December 19, 1984, the People's Republic of China (PRC) and Great Britain signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration of the Question of Hong Kong (Joint Declaration). China instituted the "One Country, Two Systems" policy. Article 5 states that "the socialist system and policies will not be practiced in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) and Hong Kong's previous capitalist system and life-style will remain unchanged for 50 years." The PRC further protected Hong Kong's educational system through the Basic Law, which went into effect on July 1, 1997, the date that Hong Kong was officially handed over to the PRC. Article 136 of the Basic Law guarantees that ". . .the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall, on its own, formulate policies on the development and improvement of education, including policies regarding the. . .examination system."

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM—OVERVIEW

In order to compete in international commerce, the government places a strong emphasis on education. When free, compulsory primary school education was initiated in 1971, only about 40 percent of the male population had six years of education. By 1999, that figure stood at 75 percent. The figures for females throughout the same period jumped from 35 to 60 percent.

Until 2000, Hong Kong authorities continued citywide examinations for placement into preferred schools from kindergarten through Sixth Form. Examination scores were used to stream students into the major fields of science, humanities, or vocational training. Examinations have also been used to determine which secondary schools students will attend. In 2000, Hong Kong began to switch away from using examination scores to stream and place students. The HKCEE in the final year of senior secondary school and the HKALE in the final year of Sixth Form remain critical examinations for all students hoping to continue their education.

The government subsidizes education at all levels. Primary and junior secondary school fees for students attending government or government-aided schools are paid completely by the government. At the senior secondary and tertiary levels, students must pay fees, but the government offers many grant and loan programs that help students with financing their education. In addition, the government funds most of the costs for students attending certain public-funded tertiary institutions. Annually, government spending ranges between 18 percent and 23 percent of its public spending budget.

Although preschool is not mandatory, 90 percent of all children aged four to six attend preschool. Kindergartens are privately owned and operated, but they must register with the government and follow strict guidelines. The competition for finding good schools begins at the primary level. Until 2000, students in primary grade six took examinations that determined where they attended junior secondary school; the placement scheme has recently been revised. More than 80 percent of those aged 12 to 14 enroll in junior secondary school.

Once students finish grade 9 or are 15-years-old, school attendance is no longer mandatory. The government, however, guarantees openings for 85 percent of junior secondary finishers who want to continue to senior secondary or another type of education. The government also has committed itself to guaranteeing subsidized openings for all students who want to continue their education either in senior secondary or vocational training schools beginning in the 2002-2003 academic year.

The two years at senior secondary school prepare students for a broad range of options, but the main goal is to prepare students for the HKCEE. In their second year (S5), they take the HKCEE to determine who gets into the limited number of places in Sixth Form schools for a two-year college preparatory program. About a third of the students who begin senior secondary school qualify for openings in Sixth Form. Only 18 percent of Sixth Form students can attend universities in Hong Kong because of the limited number of openings.

Some students go from primary six (P6) into technical secondary schools. These schools offer five-year programs, although after the first three years, students are no longer required to attend school. Many students in technical secondary schools take the HKCEE with hopes of scoring high enough to obtain a place in Sixth Form. A small percentage of students finish junior secondary school and decide to take vocational courses offered by the VTC that lead to a Certificate in Vocational Studies (CVS). This prepares them for a broad range of jobs.

Although mainly attended by expatriates' children, the international schools, often run by religious groups, are popular with the affluent Chinese population. These schools are very expensive, with fees ranging from $5,000 Hong Kong dollars (US$641.05 in March 2001) to HK$20,000 (US$2,564.20) a year. Because they emphasize problem-solving and creative thinking, many Chinese parents consider the education superior to public schools. In 2000, there was already a two-year waiting period for openings in the international schools.

Students with special needs have several options. In 1999-2000 there were 74 special education schools, including practical schools and skills opportunity schools. Hong Kong also has separate schools for the blind, the deaf, the physically handicapped, and a school for students with social adjustment problems. Some of these schools are residential. All of the special education schools provide nurses, social workers, educational psychologists, speech therapists, and other specialists. In 1999-2000, nearly 9,500 students were enrolled in special schools. The government offers testing, screening, and checklists for teachers to identify and serve students with special needs. From these tests, students are placed into regular schools if possible.

The institutions at the tertiary level consist of degree granting institutions, teacher training, and postsecondary training institutions. The government guarantees subsidized, first-year university places for 18 percent of 17-to 20-year-olds, approximately 14,500 students in 2000. In addition, the government guarantees subsidized openings in postsecondary training at technical institutions for 8 percent of this age group.

University education is not totally free, however, even at the public-funded institutions. Students do have to pay their tuition, which amounted to HK$5,500 in 2000 (US$705.16). Tuition fees account for about 20 percent of the total budget per student for universities. The remaining money comes from the government.

With the transfer of Hong Kong to the PRC, significant curriculum changes have been instituted in the primary and secondary school curriculum. New courses in civics and Putonghua (Mandarin) are being taught. The civics courses cover information on China and its culture, the basic law that governs Hong Kong, and the meaning of the "one country, two system" policy. Mandarin is the common spoken language of the majority of people in China. In the ideal situation, students will be fluent in their "mother tongue"—Cantonese, English, and Mandarin. All primary schools teach in Cantonese but, until the 1990s, secondary schools had used mostly English. Since 1997, the government has implemented the "mother-tongue" policy, requiring all but about 100 secondary schools to use Cantonese as their language of instruction.

A new government education policy instituted in the late 1990s addresses the critical issue of the thousands of newly arrived children (NAC) from mainland China. The policy is to provide 60 hours of orientation, including courses in Cantonese, Hong Kong life, and Hong Kong culture. The government hopes to integrate these children into the mainstream educational system as soon as possible. For this purpose, the government has organized and given grants to hundreds of schools to conduct programs for these children.

In the late 1990s, Hong Kong's first Chief Executive Tung Chee-wah began a public campaign to reform education in Hong Kong. He, and other officials, wanted to make sure the citizens of Hong Kong were prepared to compete in a world that required constant changing and updating of skills. One of Tung's major projects was to make schools at all levels more accountable to the people and government. To do this, he introduced School-Based Management (SBM). Tung and other education officials believed that many schools lacked strong management goals and assessment methods for growth and improvement. Since the late 1990s, Hong Kong has proposed many reforms. Some have remained in place, some have evolved into new plans, and some have been tabled for lack of public support.

Target-Oriented Curriculum (TOC) is one of the reforms being promoted. Begun in 1995, TOC was supposed to redirect the primary and secondary curriculum away from academic, teacher- and textbook-centered, and driven by competitive, norm-referenced examinations to a curriculum that will encourage "individualism and whole-person growth, child-centered and task-based learning, and criterion-referenced assessment." Three core subjects make up TOC: Chinese, English, and Mathematics. The vagueness and subjectivity of assessment standards and the extra time required to create and evaluate student activities, however, has caused some teachers to question TOC. The general idea, however, of focusing on skills in these three subjects continues to provide the foundation for Hong Kong education reform in the twenty-first century.

In line with the movement to encourage more creative thinking in the classroom, the government launched major reform in methods of assessing students. Since the mid-1990s, the trend is to replace rigid, competitive testing with more individual student assessment and guidance. The major assessment tool being used in the early twenty-first century is the Hong Kong Attainment Test (HKAT).

PREPRIMARY & PRIMARY EDUCATION

Nursery schools and kindergartens are privately owned, but they must register with the government and follow its regulations. In 1999-2000, some 756 kindergartens were registered and taught 171,138 students. The government provides financial assistance to needy families who cannot afford kindergarten fees. In 1999-2000, the Student Financial Assistance Agency (SFAA) received 72,436 applications for kindergarten fee remission. From this total, 65,128 received half fee remission and 3,741 received full fee remission. The pupil-teacher ratio in 1999-2000 was 12.6 children per teacher, but individual class sizes vary.

There were 819 primary schools with 491,181 students enrolled in 1999-2000. About 6 percent of these schools were operated entirely by the government, about 84 percent were operated by nonprofit groups that received government aid, and about 10 percent were privately owned and funded.

Most primary schools operate half day sessions. One group of children attends the morning sessions, and another group attends the afternoon sessions. The government plans to convert all primary schools to full-day schools in the future. In September 2000, about 39 percent of all primary students attended full-day schools. By the 2002-2003 school year, government plans call for 60 percent of the students to be in full-day primary schools and, by 2007-2008, all primary students should be attending full-day schools. The pupil-teacher ratio was 22.4:1 in 1999-2000, but class size is usually in the mid-thirties. The government has promoted a teaching method called "Activity Classes," a system that encourages student-centered learning. These classes are usually smaller than normal classes.

Before 2000, parents competed to get their children into prestigious primary schools, even if those schools were outside their "NET" (Hong Kong is divided into 58 primary school NETS or home districts). Parents often moved, rented, or even cheated to get their children into one of the higher rated schools. The government began a new policy in 2000 for the Primary One Admission (POA) System that restricts the competition for primary school openings. Parents are allowed to apply to any school anywhere but are only guaranteed places in their home district. There are two stages of selection. In the first, each primary school selects 65 percent of its entering primary one students from applications, but 30 percent of these must come from their district. Those children still waiting for placement are then assigned by the government to schools within their home districts.

For decades Hong Kong education officials have proposed different plans to assess student learning and to evaluate each school's performance. One was the Academic Aptitude Test (AAT), put into place in 1978. It measured verbal and numerical reasoning in Chinese and consisted entirely of multiple choice questions. In the 1990s it came under increased criticism for not measuring higher order thinking skills and for not testing more of the actual subjects from the curriculum. It was also used to compare each school's relative success at educating students. As of September 2000, the AAT was abolished. Authorities are attempting to devise tests that will allow them to assess student competency, individual school performance compared to other schools, and the city-wide school system as whole. In the meantime, a temporary three-part method will be used that combines the school's average AAT results from 1997-2000, each student's grades, and parents' preferences.

Besides the core subjects of Chinese, English, and mathematics, primary schools teach courses in general studies, including sciences and health; civics; music and art; physical education; English; and Mandarin. Instruction in computer use is also being added to the curriculum.

Although Cantonese is the language of instruction, English is taught in every primary grade. Overall, each student receives between 180 and 210 hours per year in English instruction.

SECONDARY EDUCATION

Hong Kong's secondary schools are operated by three separate groups: the government (about 8 percent of students); voluntary groups largely funded by the government (about 77 percent of students); and private schools that raise their own finances (about 15 percent of students). Secondary education is divided into three years of junior secondary (S1-S3) and two years of senior secondary (S4-S5) school. Senior secondary students take the HKCEE, and about 30 percent usually score high enough to qualify for places in Sixth Form (Secondary Sixth or S6-S7), a two-year program that prepares students to take the university qualifying exam (HKALE).

There are three types of secondary schools: grammar, which concentrates on academic subjects; technical/ vocational, which prepares students to enter the workforce after their ninth year but also offers academic preparation if students wish to continue their education; and prevocational/special schools, which are for students with disabilities. In 1999-2000, there were 433 grammar, 20 technical, and 27 prevocational schools, with more than 450,000 students: 235,974 in S1-S3; 159,343 in S4-S5; and 58,248 in S6-S7. Although the pupil-teacher ratio is about 19 to 1, class size in 1998-1999 averaged in the upper thirties, not much lower than in 1985-1986, when there were slightly fewer than 40 students per class.

Where students attend school has always been a controversial issue. Certain secondary schools established superior reputations, and parents competed to place their children in these schools. Until 1978, the availability of openings in secondary schools was limited, so students had to take a competitive exam called the Secondary School Entrance Examination (SSEE) to get into S1. After 1978, the government guaranteed a subsidized place for everyone through S3 or the age of 15. Therefore, the SSEE was not needed and it was eliminated. To determine which junior secondary school students attended, the Secondary School Places Allocation (SSPA) was introduced. Under the SSPA, there was no competitive examination. Allocation was based on a student's academic record, the Academic Aptitude Test (AAT) used to weigh the academic standards at each school, parental choice of secondary schools, and school NETS or districts.

In the late 1990s, the Education Commission began an extensive review of the SSPA system and eliminated the ATT. In 2001 they began looking at alternative plans, but the interim system is similar to the former SSPA except with less dependence on public examination scores. The end result is that most students must attend secondary schools in their own secondary school NET. The government has encouraged primary and secondary schools to link together in a system called "Through Train" so that students will pass directly from P6 (sixth year of primary school) to specified junior secondary schools for S1. The commission plans to have a new system in place by 2004 or 2005.

Gaining a place in senior secondary schools is also competitive. Because there were limited places in senior secondary schools, the government created the Junior Secondary Education Assessment (JSEA) in 1980. In 1993, the present system called Secondary Four Places (SFP) was adopted. It combines student performance in school with a formula called Mean Eligibility Rate (MER), which determines the success of each junior secondary school in placing students in S4.

The government subsidizes places for 85 percent of the S3 leavers in grammar and technical schools and another 10 percent for places in vocational subsidized schools. In 1999, approximately 78,000 students finished S3. Almost all of them sought further education. In addition, a few thousand former S3 finishers sought some form of post S3 education. The government offered subsidized places for 73,749 students. Courses taught by other agencies and subsidized by the Department of Education covered 2,240 more students. The Vocational Training Council (VTC) subsidized 4,192 full time openings in vocational and industrial training, including study with the Construction Industry Training Authority and the Clothing Industry Training Authority. Other programs with private schools took 3,498 students in 1999. So in effect, almost everyone who wanted to continue schooling beyond junior secondary had the opportunity.

There are few expenses for students attending junior secondary school other than transportation, books, and uniforms. The government Student Financial Assistance Agency (SFAA) offers textbook assistance for needy families. Students attending senior secondary school, however, must pay an annual fee. For the academic year 2000-2001, this amounted to HK$5,050 (US$647.48). For Sixth Form the fee was HK$8,750 (US__BODY__,121.80).

The SFAA provides fee remission and other assistance for needy S4-S7 students from families with average monthly incomes of under HK$23,200 (US$2,974.37). In 2001, the government promised that subsidized S4 places would be available in the future for everyone who wanted to further his or her education beyond the required nine years.

Getting into senior secondary school puts students on track to take the HKCEE and qualify for Sixth Form, but openings are limited. There were 23,956 guaranteed places in S6 for the 1999-2000 academic year. In recent years the percentage of students going on to post S5 study has been around 33 percent. Many of those who take the HKCEE are not associated with a school; they are retaking the exam to try to increase their scores. In 2000, of the 130,303 examinees, 41,267 were private candidates.

To prepare students for the HKCEE, senior secondary schools dedicate about 50 percent of the curriculum to the three core subjects: Chinese, English, and mathematics. In all, the HKCEE covers 42 subjects, and most students choose 7 or 8 for examination. Chinese, English, and mathematics must be taken by all students, then students select either humanities exams in subjects such as world history, Chinese history, geography, and economics; or science exams in subjects such as physics, chemistry, biology, and additional mathematics. The tests are scored on an A through F basis: A, 5 points; B, 4 points; C, 3 points; D, 2 points; E, 1 point; and F, not passing. The best six grades are counted, and they must total 14 or higher if a student hopes for a place at a subsidized Sixth Form. HKCEE scores are also used in the workforce for mid-level hiring. To get a civil service position as a clerical officer, for example, an applicant must have five grade Es, two of which must be in Chinese and English languages.

Annually, from 60 to 68 percent of the exams are scored E or above. In 2000, the four most popular subjects were Chinese language with 78,975 examinees (66.0 percent scored E or higher); mathematics with 78,658 (74.7 percent scored E or higher); additional math with 21,479 (84.6 percent scored E or higher); English language with 66,064 (64.6 percent scored E or higher); and economics with 38,494 examinees (68.4 percent scored E or higher).

To qualify for university level education, students must take the HKALE. Most students take the exam in the late spring during their second year of Sixth Form. To be eligible to take the HKALE, students must have a grade of E or above in six HKCEE subjects, two of which must be Chinese and English. Because more than 25 percent of those who take the HKALE annually are no longer students, they are classified as private candidates. To be eligible for the exam, private candidates must meet one of three criteria: (1) have taken the HKCEE 18 months before the HKALE examination; scored a grade of E or above in six subjects, including Chinese and English; have a C or above in at least one subject; and a point total from the exams of at least 10 (using the same A through F point system as the HKCEE); (2) have taken the HKALE before; or (3) be 21-years-old by January 1 of the year of the examination.

In 2000, some 35,549 students sat for the exams, 75.7 percent for the first time. Of this total, 16,868 (48.7 percent) scored high enough to qualify for admission to tertiary institutions: 7,586 males (47.1 percent) and 9,282 females (50 percent). Only about 14,500 government subsidized openings were available, however. This shortage of places leads many students to study overseas. The Hong Kong government estimated that in the late 1990s, a total of about 40,000 Hong Kong university students were studying overseas. The most popular countries were the United States (13,000 students), the United Kingdom (10,000), Australia (9,000), and Canada (6,500). Another 2,000 studied in other places such as Mainland China and Taiwan.

The HKALE tests subjects at two levels: 20 subjects at the A or advanced level and 20 subjects at the AS or advanced supplementary level. Both require two years of study, but the AS courses are half the classroom time as the A level courses. Universities consider two AS exams to be equal to one A-level exam when figuring scores on the HKALE. AS subjects were introduced in 1994 as a part of the government's attempt to encourage students to study outside the narrow course offerings in their majors.

Prior to 1994, the only mandatory language exam on the HKALE was English. Following the government's initiative, tertiary institutions began requiring a passing grade in both English and Chinese on the HKALE as prerequisite for acceptance. However, except for the AS-level English and Chinese exams, AS-level subjects have not become popular. In general, students take examinations that will enable them to meet entry requirements into specific university programs. As a result, more than 50 percent of the students never take AS level exams except in language.

To enter universities, candidates must score a grade of E or above in both "Use of English" and "Chinese Language and Culture," and a minimum of two more A-level or one A-level plus two AS-level subjects. Particular university programs might require additional requirements.

Instead of university study, thousands of students enter technical and prevocational secondary schools. The prevocational schools concentrate more on crafts for industry at the lower range of difficulty, while the technical schools offer three years of courses that also prepare students for possible senior secondary school. Therefore, the first three years in technical secondary schools include concentrations in academic subjects similar to grammar schools. A few technical schools offer S4 and S5 level courses that prepare students for the HKCEE. Technical openings go unfilled, however. In the late 1990s, only half of the 10 percent of subsidized openings were being filled.

HIGHER EDUCATION

Higher education generally covers two major types of institutions: degree-granting and technical/vocational education (postsecondary). Both are under the general supervision of the University Grants Council (UGC). The UGC fully subsidizes eight institutions offering bachelor's degrees. These include City University of Hong Kong (City U), Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU or Baptist University), Lingnan University (LU), Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK), Hong Kong Polytechnic University (Poly U), Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST), University of Hong Kong (HKU), and most recently Hong Kong Institute of Education (HKIEd).

The oldest university in Hong Kong is the University of Hong Kong, formed in 1912 when the Medical College (founded in 1887) joined with the new Technical Institute. In recent decades, HKU has established itself as a major research institution with international acclaim. The next development came 50 years later, in 1963, when three colleges joined to form the Chinese University of Hong Kong, which also has developed into a highly respected teaching and research university. CUHK is home of the other medical school in Hong Kong.

In the 1970s and 1980s, several new higher educational institutions opened. Hong Kong Baptist University, which offers university degrees through the doctoral level, opened as Baptist College in 1970. Today, Baptist University has no formal affiliation with the church. In 1978, a branch of Guangzhou's Lingnan University opened with a strong emphasis on the liberal arts. LU has expanded into programs offering a Master of Philosophy and Doctor of Philosophy in Chinese, cultural studies, English, philosophy, translation, business, and social sciences. Hong Kong Polytechnic University began in 1972 as Hong Kong Polytechnic and became a fully-accredited university in 1994. In 1984, City University of Hong Kong began as City Polytechnic. It also was fully accredited in 1994. The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts (APA) started up in 1984 and, in the late 1990s, began offering first degree level programs, in addition to advanced diplomas and certificates in the fine arts (dance, drama, music, and technical arts). It has about 700 full-time students. In 1989, the Open University of Hong Kong (OUHK) began as the Open Learning Institute, and in 1996 OUHK became accredited as a university. OUHK offers university degrees, but it is funded independently, mostly from student fees. It is Hong Kong's major institution offering distance learning. Half of OUHK's 18,000 students are between 26- and 35-years-old, and most of these students attend part time.

The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) opened in 1991 and immediately offered university and graduate level courses. In 1994, the Hong Kong Institute of Education was formed from four colleges of education. At first it offered professional certificates and training, but in 1997, HKIEd became fully funded by the government under the sponsorship of the University Grants Committee; in the following year, HKIEd offered its first degree programs.

Most bachelor's degree programs take three years. Unlike programs in the United States, Hong Kong university degree programs focus on a single major and closely related subjects, rather than requiring a broad range of core courses across disciplines. There is a strong movement to change to the broader-based education system used by U.S. universities, which would require most Hong Kong universities to restructure course requirements.

Business and related fields are the most popular university degree subjects. In 1999-2000, business and management accounted for 23 percent of the majors in UGC funded institutions. Almost a third of these were studying accounting. About 16 percent studied science and mathematics, and another 19 percent chose engineering as their major field. Other popular majors include economics, medicine, and computer science.

In an attempt to expand their resources and international reputation, several universities have formed partnerships with universities overseas and on the China mainland. For example, Poly U has ties with Tianjin Medical University and Peking Union Medical College for teaching health science research. Baptist University offers a long-distance MBA degree program jointly with Scotland's University of Strathclyde.

A number of private institutions provide education at the tertiary level. They are self-supporting, so they depend on private funding. One is Caritas Francis Hsu College (CFHC) which targets people who are mainly working in the commercial fields and want to continue their formal education. In coordination with universities in Great Britain and Australia, Francis Hsu College's Centre for Advanced and Professional Studies (CAPS) offers bachelor and master programs in a variety of fields, including accounting, business management, and hospitality management.

Higher vocational and technical education in the nongovernment sponsored schools must register with the government under the Post Secondary College Ordinance. Currently, only Shue Yan College (SYC) is registered. Opened in 1976, SYC offers four-year secondary diploma courses and a few first degree and masters programs. SYC has ties to universities in China and overseas.

The other type of postsecondary education consists of institutions that provide technical and vocational courses, called sub-degree levels. These programs tend to be vocational, more specifically targeted to teaching work-related skills. They are not equivalent to a bachelors degree from a university. Typically, candidates need passing scores on at least five HKCEEs to qualify for sub-degree programs. Upon completion of these programs, students receive a higher certificate, a diploma, or higher diploma. As a rule, these students usually attend part time since they normally work full time. The length of study ranges from two to four years. A variety of these programs are offered through several colleges and universities, including Poly U, APA, HKIEd, City U, OUHK, and the Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (IVE).

The major government sponsor of technical and vocational training is the Vocational Training Council (VTC), founded in 1982, which offers programs through its IVE. Although officially these are not classified as secondary education, they do include some senior secondary courses that help prepare some students for the HKCEE. IVE has nine different institutes around Hong Kong that teach a wide range of vocational courses in coordination with industry, from commerce to textiles. In 1999-2000, some 54,781 full- and part-time students studied with IVE. Some of the curriculum is designed for higher level technical positions in industry and commerce. Upon completion, students receive certificates and associate degrees.

Students must pay for their higher education. For needy students attending the University Grants Council (UGC) subsidized institutions, financial assistance is available from government grants and loans. Besides the eight universities listed earlier, other subsidized institutions are IVE, APA, and Prince Philip Dental Hospital. In 1999-2000, the UGC processed 32,085 applications and offered assistance to almost all applicants. In many cases, students received a combination of grants and loans to cover their higher education expenses. The average amount offered was HK$47,223 (US$6,054.60).

In the early 1980s, total enrollment in UGC funded tertiary institutions for full time, first degree students numbered 2,000 and 3,000, or approximately 3 to 4 percent of the 17- to 20-year-old population. Then Hong Kong authorities began to build more institutions of higher education. The percentage of the 17- to 20-year-old population entering as full time, first degree students more than doubled between 1984 and 1990, to more than 9 percent, or approximately 7,000 full-time students. From 1991 to 1997, full-time students increased by 32 percent in UGC funded institutions (46 percent if the VTC technical colleges are included). By the late 1990s, there were approximately 14,500 (about 19 percent) of 17- to 20-year-olds entering UGC funded bachelor degree level institutions full time each year. The total enrollment at all levels for full-time students at UGC institutions in 1999-2000 was 69,948 students. The total enrollment for all of the 11 major tertiary institutions was 112,473 students. Another 150,000 people were taking some kind of continuing training and education.

ADMINISTRATION, FINANCE, & EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

For the 2000-2001 fiscal year, Hong Kong's government expenditure on education was approximately HK$54.4 billion (US$7 billion). This total was 22.3 percent of the total government expenditure, an increase over previous annual budgets. The total was divided fairly evenly among primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. The agency responsible for education throughout Hong Kong is the Education and Manpower Bureau (EMB). The Education Commission (EC), however, carries out much of the daily planning, developing, and monitoring of all the schools. The EC is composed of 19 members, most of whom are appointed from the field of education, not government officials.

The UGC oversees the distribution of government money to tertiary institutions. Much of this money is allocated as a triennial block grant to each of the eight public funded institutions, and these institutions determine how to spend the money to provide the best educational services for their students. The UGC committee is made up of members appointed by Hong Kong's chief executive from outside the government, including representatives from the business and academic communities. Their mission is two-fold: one is to protect the academic freedom and independence of the institutions that they fund, and the other is ensure that the government's money is used effectively for the benefit of the people.

High quality research in Hong Kong universities is a relatively new activity. Until the mid-1990s, the government was mainly concerned with expanding educational opportunities. Since that time, however, Hong Kong educators have worked toward international respectability in research. The government's Research Grants Council (RGC), a subsidiary of the UGC, has four subject area panels that evaluate research proposals and recommend grants for research to academic staff members at UGC funded institutions. The subject areas are physical sciences, engineering, biology and medicine, and humanities and social sciences. Members of the panels are independent of government. Most are academics from Hong Kong and overseas institutions, while some are from nonacademic sectors of Hong Kong.

The VTC is made up of 22 members, 4 of whom come from government. The remaining are appointed from industry, business, and universities. VTC's main function is to advise government on the manpower requirements in Hong Kong, especially as it pertains to future development. Through its 20 Training Boards—covering areas such as accounting, banking and finance, hotel, catering and tourism, maritime services, textile and clothing, apprenticeship and trade testing, and disability training—the VTC offers training and skill upgrading to tens of thousands of workers annually. VTC also operates two technical colleges that offer diploma and higher certificate courses.

NONFORMAL EDUCATION

In the late 1990s, Hong Kong's government made a strong commitment to promoting "life-long learning" skills. The rationale behind this movement is that people in the fast-pace changing world of the twenty-first century must be prepared to learn new skills throughout their lifetime. One type of learning involves professional and career upgrading. Another involves knowledge for improving lifestyle so that people can appreciate the arts or pursue new hobbies.

Hong Kong has extensive continuing and professional education (CPE) programs. In the UGC supported institutions alone, continuing studies has grown from about 20,000 students in 1970 to more than 160,000 in 1996. In 1997, the 20- to 64-year-old age group in Hong Kong was estimated to be 4,214,300 people. From this group alone, the number of people taking some form of continuing education was 872,360 (even higher if the under 20 working group was included). Among the institutions with large CPE enrollments are HKU (School of Professional and Continuing Education), CUHK (the School of Continuing Studies), City U, Poly U (Centre for Professional and Continuing Education and the Centre for Professional & Business English), HKBU (School of Continuing Education), HKIEd, and the OUHK.

Several other agencies offer different forms of CPE, including the Caritas Adult and Higher Education Service at Caritas Francis Hsu College, the Hong Kong Management Association, the Hong Kong College of Technology through its Information Service Centre of Professional Studies (ISCOPS), and dozens of private firms and government departments.

TEACHING PROFESSION

Qualifications to teach in Hong Kong schools vary according to the level of teaching. Until September 2001, the minimum qualification to teach kindergarten was completion of S5 with two or more passes on the HKCEE, one of which had to be in either Chinese language or Chinese literature. In September 2001, the minimum number of passes was raised to five, including both Chinese and English languages. In 1999-2000, about 54 percent of the 8,855 kindergarten teachers were qualified kindergarten trained (QKT) and another 19 percent were in training. A person must take 360 hours of in-service training offered by the HKIEd to receive the QKT endorsement.

Only about 15 percent of primary teachers held university degrees in 1999-2000, but the vast majority had received professional teacher training. By 2004-2005 all the teaching programs at HKIEd will offer the Certificate of Education (CEd) university degree. Students with the HKCEE can enter HKIEd and take a three-year program leading to the CEd, the general qualification for teaching in primary schools in the future. Students who possess the HKAL can take a two-year program to get the CEd. Secondary school teachers are also trained at the HKIEd for their CEd. Those with degrees from a university but without teacher training take a year-long postgraduate course at HKIEd, UHK, CUHK, or BU to qualify for a postgraduate certificate in education. In 1999-2000, of a total of 24,453 secondary school teachers, 72 percent were graduates with degrees, while another 10 percent had special teacher training.

The HKIEd was created in 1994 by statute that combined Northcote College of Education, Grantham College of Education, Sir Robert Black College of Education, the Hong Kong Technical Teachers' College, and the Institute of Language in Education. In 1997, HKIE became fully funded by the government under the sponsorship of the UGC. Besides the CEd, HKIEd offers a Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) and Bachelor of Education for primary teachers. By 1999-2000 HKIEd was offering more than 50 courses and had nearly 10,000 students. HKIEd also has added a School of Creative Arts, a School of Sciences and Technology, a School of Early Childhood Education, a School of Languages in Education, and a School of Foundations in Education.

Masters- and doctoral-level degrees are prerequisites for most full time, university teaching positions. Like universities in the West, graduate level students also teach. To encourage postgraduate research in all fields, the government is increasing its positions for postgraduate research by 11 percent each academic year between 2001 and 2004.

The Hong Kong Professional Teachers Union (PTU) represents more than 60,000 teachers, or 90 percent of all teachers from kindergarten through university. It is active in all aspects of education, including protecting academic freedom, offering teacher workshops, publishing newsletters to keep teachers informed. In addition, the PTU sponsors services such as a cooperative supermarket, an optometric center, a dental center, and health project medical center.

Salaries for teachers vary greatly from primary to university level. In 1999, a full time academic professor near the top of the pay scale made about US$190,000 annually. A senior lecturer/reader with several years experience makes around US$125,000. The pay for an assistant lecturer/lecturer varies from US$50,000 to US$120,000. Primary and secondary school teachers with several years experience average around US$42,000 annually, but the scale varies considerably with experience. A teacher/administrator/coordinator position pays more, as much as US$60,000 annually. In 2000, the government was recruiting secondary school teachers for its native English-speaking teacher scheme (NET) for salaries ranging from US$26,000 to more than US$70,000, depending on qualifications. All of these full-time positions offer health and retirement benefits.

SUMMARY

The most prominent feature in Hong Kong life and culture is the tension between the people's traditional Chinese respect for authority and conformity, and their need for more flexible and creative problem-solving skills. The two potential changes most often debated are eliminating the total reliance on citywide, standardized examinations for placing students and switching to a more open curriculum that resembles the American model of education, with its broad span of offerings. The government has taken steps to open up the curriculum, but moving to the American 6-3-3-4 system of education (6 years of primary, 3 of junior high, 3 of senior high, and 4 of university) and abolishing "banding" in secondary schools is running into opposition.

Another major reform movement in Hong Kong's educational system involves languages. Hong Kong has begun an intensive campaign to promote "biliterate and trilingual" skills in the curriculum. The first change has been to require most public schools to use Cantonese as the teaching language in primary and secondary schools. Officials believe that students are more comfortable learners when they are taught in their native language. With Hong Kong's heritage of English as the language of commerce, however, educators realize that they have the opportunity to retain and increase the numbers and quality of English speakers so that Hong Kong will remain a center of international finance and trade. To accomplish this goal, the government initiated the NET scheme to recruit 750 native English teacher/coordinators (NETs) for the public schools by the early years of the twenty-first century. The government provides extra funding for schools who hire NETs. The third language requirement comes with the handover of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China. Mandarin, the language spoken in most of China, is a Chinese dialect not understood by most people in Hong Kong. All the schools now teach Mandarin as a standard course.

The reform that is succeeding with little opposition is the campaign to extend education and use of information technology (IT) from primary schools through universities. As a city without any natural resources, Hong Kong's success is tied to its people's ability to gather and manage information.

The Secretary for Education and Manpower Branch reported that by May 2001 all public supported schools would have computers, and the plan is to supply each primary school with 40 computers and each secondary school with 82 computers. In addition, all secondary and almost all primary schools had Internet access by the spring of 2001. Ultimately, the government wants all publicly supported schools to teach 25 percent of their curriculum through the Internet. To accomplish this, the government has instituted a comprehensive training program for all teachers. By late 2000, 75 percent of the teachers had finished basic information technology training (IT). The goal is to have 75 percent of all teachers trained at the intermediate level by 2002-2003. Another prominent feature of the IT crusade is the online learning tool for public schools and life-long learning projects called Hong Kong Education City. In the spring of 2001, the e-class site listed 294 science courses, 146 language courses, 123 art/music/physical education/vocational/library courses, and 117 social studies courses for students.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bray, M. "Hong Kong: System of Education." The International Encyclopedia of Education. Vol. 5, 2nd ed. Torsten Husen and T. Neville Postlewaite, eds. New York: Elsevier Science Ltd., 1994.

Board of Education. "Report on Review of 9-year Compulsory October 1997 Education (Revised Version)," October 1997. Hong Kong Special Administrative Region [HKSAR]. Available from http://www.info.gov.hk/emb/eng/public/rep_table.html.

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The World Factbook 2000. Directorate of Intelligence, 1 January 2000. Available from http://www.cia.gov/.

Chee-Cheong, Choi. "Public Examinations in Hong Kong." Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, no. 3, November 1999. Available from http:ehostvgw1.epnet.com.

Cheung, Michael. "Spotlight on Hong Kong: Reading, Writing, and Rote Learning. . .Drive Students to Western Schools." Business Week International Editions, 14 August 2000. Available http://www.businessweek.com/.

Education Commission. HKSAR, March 2001. Available from http://www.e-c.edu.hk/eng/main.html.

Education Department. HKSAR, March 2001. Available from http://www.ed.gov.hk/ednewhp/text_sitemap_link.htm.

Hong Kong Examinations Authority. HKSAR, March 2001. Available from http://www.hkea.edu.hk/.

"Recruiting Students in Asia: Hong Kong: Local and International Education," March 2001. Available from http://home.school.net.hk/üiie/hked/hkeducation.htm.

—John A. Zurlo