ZIMBABWE
Compiled from the January 2005 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.
Official Name:
Republic of Zimbabwe
PROFILE
Geography
Area: 390,580 sq. km. (150,760 sq. mi.), slightly larger than Montana.
Cities: Capital—Harare (pronounced Ha-RAR-e), pop. 1.5 million. Other towns—Bulawayo, Chitungwiza, Mutare, Gweru, Kwekwe, Masvingo, Marondera.
Terrain: Desert and savanna.
Climate: Mostly subtropical.
People
Nationality: Noun and adjective—Zimbabwean (sing.), Zimbabweans (pl.).
Population: (2003 est.) 12.5 million.
Annual growth rate: (2003 est.) 0.83%. (Note: the population growth rate is depressed by an HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate estimated to be nearly 25% and a high level of net emigration.)
Ethnic groups: Shona 71%, Ndebele 16%, other African 11%, white 1%, mixed and Asian 1%.
Religions: Christianity 75%, offshoot Christian sects, animist, and Muslim.
Languages: English (official), Shona, Sindebele.
Education: Attendance—mandatory for primary level. Adult literacy—76% (2003 est.).
Health: Infant mortality rate—66/1,000 (2003 est.). Life expectancy—men 40 (2003 est.), women 38 (2003 est.)
Work force: (2003 est.) 1.33 million in formal sector.
Government
Type: Parliamentary.
Constitution: December 21, 1979.
Independence: April 18, 1980.
Branches: Executive—President (chief of state and head of government), Cabinet. Legislative—In the 150-seat House of Assembly, 120 seats are popularly elected and 30 are directly appointed by the President or selected through a process strongly influenced by him. Judicial—High Court, Court of Appeal, local and customary courts.
Administrative subdivisions: Town Councils and District Councils.
Political parties: Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF); Movement for Democratic Change (MDC); National Alliance for Good Governance (NAGG), Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), Zimbabwe African National Union-Ndonga (ZANU-Ndonga).
Economy
GDP: (2003 est.) US $3.6 billion.
Growth rate: (2004 est.) −5%.
Per capita GDP: (2003 est.) US $327.
Avg. inflation rate: 252% (year-to-year, Sept. 2004).
Natural resources: Deposits of more than 40 minerals including ferrochrome, gold, silver, platinum, copper, asbestos; 19 million hectares of forest (2000).
Agriculture: (20% of GDP) Types of crops and livestock—corn, cotton, tobacco, wheat, coffee, tea, sugar cane, peanuts, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs.
Industry: Manufacturing (25% of GDP), public administration (9% of GDP), commerce (9% of GDP), mining (8% of GDP), transport and communication (6% of GDP).
Trade: (2003) U.S. exports—U.S. $42 million. U.S. imports—U.S. $67 million. Partners (2000 est.)—South Africa 22%, U.K. 10%, Germany 9%, U.S. 8%. Total imports—U.S. __BODY__,886 million: most of these imports were construction and agricultural machinery, transportation equipment, data processing equipment and software, industrial machinery, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and general manufactured products. Major suppliers—South Africa 34%, U.K. 10.8%, Germany 7.3%, U.S. 6%.
PEOPLE AND HISTORY
Primarily of the Bantu group of south and central Africa, the black Zimbabweans are divided into two major language groups, which are subdivided into several ethnic groups. The Mashona (Shona speakers), who constitute about 75% of the population, have lived in the area the longest and are the majority language group. The Matabele (Sindebele speakers), representing about 20% of the population and centered in the southwest around Bulawayo, arrived within the last 150 years. An offshoot of the South African Zulu group, they maintained control over the Mashona until the white occupation of Rhodesia in 1890.
More than half of white Zimbabweans, primarily of English origin, arrived in Zimbabwe after World War II. Afrikaners from South Africa and other European minorities, including Portuguese from Mozambique, also are present. Until the mid-1970s, there were about 1,000 white immigrants per year, but from 1976 to 1985 a steady emigration resulted in a loss of more than 150,000, leaving about 100,000 in 1992. Renewed white emigration in the late 1990s and early 2000s reduced the white population to less than 50,000. English, the official language, is spoken by the white population and understood, if not always used, by more than half of the black population.
The literacy rate is estimated at 76%. Primary and secondary schools were segregated until 1979 when racial restrictions were removed. Since independence, the educational system had been systematically enlarged by the Zimbabwean Government, which is committed to providing free public education to all citizens on an equal basis. As of the late 1970s, some 50% of the African children (5-19 years old) were listed officially as attending rural schools. Today, most African children attend primary school. Primary through post-secondary enrollment has expanded from 1 million to about 2.9 million since independence. About 40% of the rural primary schools were destroyed during the Rhodesian conflict, which delayed improvement of the rural education system. Higher education, offered at the University of Zimbabwe in Harare, the new National University of Science and Technology in Bulawayo, the new Africa (Methodist) University in Mutare, several teacher-training colleges, and three technical institutes, are being expanded with assistance from several donor countries.
Early History
Archaeologists have found Stone-Age implements and pebble tools in several areas of Zimbabwe, a suggestion of human habitation for many centuries, and the ruins of stone buildings provide evidence of early civilization. The most impressive of these sites is the "Great Zimbabwe" ruins, after which the country is named, located near Masvingo. Evidence suggests that these stone structures were built between the 9th and 13th centuries A.D. by indigenous Africans who had established trading contacts with commercial centers on Africa's southeastern coast.
In the 16th century, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to attempt colonization of south-central Africa, but the hinterland lay virtually untouched by Europeans until the arrival of explorers, missionaries, ivory hunters, and traders some 300 years later. Meanwhile, mass migrations of indigenous peoples took place. Successive waves of more highly developed Bantu peoples from equatorial regions supplanted the original inhabitants and are the ancestors of the region's Africans today.
British Settlement and Administration
In 1888, Cecil Rhodes obtained a concession for mineral rights from local chiefs. Later that year, the area that became Southern and Northern Rhodesia was proclaimed a British sphere of influence. The British South Africa Company was chartered in 1889, and the settlement of Salisbury (now Harare, the capital) was established in 1890. In 1895, the territory was formally named Rhodesia after Cecil Rhodes under the British South Africa Company's administration.
Following the abrogation of the company's charter in 1923, Southern Rhodesia's white settlements were given the choice of being incorporated into the Union of South Africa or becoming a separate entity within the British Empire. The settlers rejected incorporation, and Southern Rhodesia was formally annexed by the United Kingdom that year. Until 1980, Rhodesia was an internally self-governing colony with its own legislature, civil service, armed forces, and police. Although Rhodesia was never administered directly from London, the United Kingdom always retained the right to intervene in the affairs of the colony, particularly in matters affecting Africans.
After 1923, European immigrants concentrated on developing Rhodesia's rich mineral resources and agricultural potential. The settlers' demand for more land led in 1934 to the passage of the first of a series of land apportionment acts that reserved certain areas for Europeans.
In September 1953, Southern Rhodesia was joined in a multiracial Central African Federation with the British protectorate of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in an effort to pool resources and markets. Although the federation flourished economically, the African population, who feared they would not be able to achieve self-government with the federal structure dominated by White Southern Rhodesians, opposed it. The federation was dissolved at the end of 1963 after much crisis and turmoil, and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland became the independent states of Zambia and Malawi in 1964.
Unilateral Declaration Of Independence (UDI)
The European electorate in Rhodesia, however, showed little willingness to accede to African demands for increased political participation and progressively replaced more moderate party leaders. In April 1964, Prime Minister Winston Field, accused of not moving rapidly enough to obtain independence from the United Kingdom, was replaced by his deputy, Ian Smith. Prime Minster
Smith led his Rhodesian Front Party to an overwhelming victory in the 1965 elections, winning all 50 of the first roll seats and demoralizing the more moderate European opposition.
Although prepared to grant independence to Rhodesia, the United Kingdom insisted that the authorities at Salisbury first demonstrate their intention to move toward eventual majority rule. Desiring to keep their dominant position, the white Rhodesians refused to give such assurances. On November 11, 1965, after lengthy and unsuccessful negotiations with the British Government, Prime Minister Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom.
Post-UDI Events
The British Government considered the UDI unconstitutional and illegal but made clear that it would not use force to oppose it. On November 12, 1965, the United Nations also determined the Rhodesian Government and UDI to be illegal and called on member states to refrain from assisting or recognizing the Smith regime. The British Government imposed sanctions on Rhodesia and requested other nations to do the same.
On December 16, 1966, the UN Security Council, for the first time in this history, imposed mandatory economic sanctions on a state. Rhodesia's primary exports including ferrochrome and tobacco, were placed on the selective sanctions list, as were shipments of arms, aircraft, motor vehicles, petroleum, and petroleum products to Rhodesia. On May 29, 1968, the Security Council unanimously voted to broaden the sanctions by imposing an almost total embargo on all trade with, investments in, or transfers of funds to Rhodesia and imposed restrictions on air transport to the territory.
In the early 1970s, informal attempts at settlement were renewed between the United Kingdom and the Rhodesian administration. Following the April 1974 coup in Portugal and the resulting shifts of power in Mozambique and Angola, pressure on the Smith regime to negotiate a peaceful settlement increased. In addition, sporadic antigovernment guerilla activity, which began in the late 1960s, increased dramatically after 1972, causing destruction, economic dislocation, casualties, and a slump in white morale. In 1974, the major African nationalists groups—the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), which split away from ZAPU in 1963—were united into the "Patriotic Front" and combined their military forces, at least nominally.
In 1976, because of a combination of embargo-related economic hardships, the pressure of guerilla activity, independence and majority rule in the neighboring former Portuguese territories, and a U.K.-U.S. diplomatic initiative, the Smith government agreed in principle to majority rule and to a meeting in Geneva with black nationalist leaders to negotiate a final settlement of the conflict. Blacks represented at the Geneva meeting included ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo, ZANU leader Robert Mugabe, UANC chairman bishop Abel Muzorewa, and former ZANU leader Rev. Nadabaningi Sithole. The meeting failed to find a basis for agreement because of Smith's inflexibility and the inability of the black leaders to form a common political front.
On September 1, 1977 a detailed Anglo-American plan was put forward with proposals for majority rule, neutrally administered with pre-independence elections, a democratic constitution and the formation of an integrated army. Reactions were mixed, but no party rejected them. In the interim, on March 3, 1978, the Smith administration signed the "internal settlement" agreement in Salisbury with Bishop Muzorewa, Rev. Sithole, and Chief Jeremiah Chirau. The agreement provided for qualified majority rule and elections with universal suffrage. Following elections in April 1979, in which his UANC party won a majority, Bishop Muzorewa assumed office on June 1, becoming "Zimbabwe-Rhodesia's" first black prime minister. However, the installation of the new black majority government did not end the guerilla conflict that had claimed more than 20,000 lives since 1972.
Shortly after British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's conservative government took power in May 1979, the British began a new round of consultations that culminated in an agreement among the Commonwealth countries as the basis for fresh negotiations among the parties and the British involving a new constitution, free elections and independence.
The British and the African parties began deliberations on a Rhodesian settlement at Lancaster House in London on September 10, 1979. On December 10, 1979, in preparation for the transition under British authority to officially recognized independence, the "Zimbabwe-Rhodesia" reverted de facto to colonial status. On December 12, British Governor Lord Christopher Soames arrived in Salisbury to reassert British authority over the colony. His arrival signaled the end of the Rhodesian rebellion and the "internal settlement," as well as the beginning of Zimbabwe's transition to independence. The United Kingdom lifted all remaining sanctions against Zimbabwe that day. The United States lifted sanctions effective December 16.
On December 21, after 3 months of hard bargaining, the parties signed an agreement at Lancaster House calling for a cease-fire, new elections, a transition period under British rule, and a new Constitution implementing majority rule while protecting minority rights. The agreement specified that upon the granting of independence, the country's name would be Zimbabwe. The same day, the UN Security Council endorsed the settlement agreement and formally voted unanimously to call on member nations to remove sanctions.
During the transition period, nine political parties campaigned for the February 27-29 pre-independence elections. The elections were supervised by the British Government and monitored by hundreds of observers, most of whom concluded that, under the prevailing circumstances, the elections were free and fair and reflected the will of the people. Robert Mugabe's ZANU (PF) party won an absolute majority and was asked to form Zimbabwe's first government.
In a series of public statements during the transition period, Prime Minister Mugabe indicated that he was committed to a process of national reconciliation and reconstruction as well as moderate socioeconomic change. His priorities were to integrate the various armed forces, reestablish social services and education in rural areas, and resettle the estimated one million refugees and displaced persons. Mugabe also announced that his government would begin investigating ways of reversing past discriminatory policies in land distribution, education, employment, and wages.
Mugabe stated that Zimbabwe would follow a nonaligned foreign policy and would pursue a pragmatic relationship with South Africa. He noted that while Zimbabwe opposed apartheid and would support democratic change in South Africa, it would not provide bases for anti-South African guerillas.
The British Government formally granted independence to Zimbabwe on April 18, 1980. Most nations recognized Zimbabwe following independence. The United States was to first nation to open an embassy in Salisbury (Harare) on that day. Parliament convened for the first time on May 13, 1980. Zimbabwe became a member of the United Nations on August 25, 1980.
In seeking national reconciliation, Prime Minister Mugabe's first cabinet comprised members of ZANU-PF, PF-ZAPU, and independent white members of parliament (MPs) and senators. The government embarked on an ambitious reconstruction and development program and instituted increases in minimum wages. Land redistribution proceeded under four experimental models on land that the government had purchased at market rates from willing sellers.
Zimbabwe Since Independence
Prime Minister Mugabe's policy of reconciliation was generally successful during the country's first two years of independence, as the former political and military opponents began to work together. Although additional blacks were hired to fill new places in the civil service, there was no retribution for those whites who had worked for the Smith regime. Smith and many of his associates held seats in the parliament where they participated freely in debates. Likewise, Joshua Nkomo, Mugabe's rival as leader of the nationalist forces, was included in the first cabinet along with several other members of PF-ZAPU.
Splits soon developed, however. In 1981, several MPs from Smith's party left to sit as "independents," signifying that they did not automatically accept his anti-government posture. More importantly, government security officials discovered large caches of arms and ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, and Nkomo and his followers were accused of plotting to overthrow Mugabe's government. Nkomo and his closest aides were expelled from the cabinet.
As a result of what they perceived as persecution of Nkomo (known as "Father Zimbabwe") and of his party, PF-ZAPU supporters, some of them deserters from the army, began a loosely organized and ill-defined campaign of dissidence against the government. Centering primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles who were PF-ZAPU's main followers, this dissidence continued through 1987 and involved attacks on government personnel and installations, armed banditry aimed at disrupting security and economic life in the rural areas, and harassment of ZANU-PF members.
Occasionally, some demanded that Nkomo and his colleagues be reinstated in the cabinet. More frequently, however, dissidents called for the return of farms and other properties seized from PF-ZAPU.
Because of the unsettled security situation immediately after independence and the continuing anti-government dissidence, the government kept in force a "state of emergency," which was first declared before UDI. This gave government authorities widespread powers under the "Law and Order Maintenance Act," including the right to detain persons without charge.
In 1983-84, the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress dissidents. Credible reports surfaced of widespread violence and disregard for human rights by the security forces during these operations, and the level of political tension rose in the country as a result.
The pacification campaign, known as the "Gukuruhundi," or strong wind, resulted in as many as 20,000 civilian deaths. Nkomo and his lieutenants repeatedly denied any connection with the dissidents and called for an all-party conference to discuss the political problems facing the country. In the 1985 elections, ZANU-PF increased its majority, holding 67 of the 100 seats. ZANU-PF and PFZAPU agreed to unite in December 1987, and the parties formally merged in December 1989.
In October 1987, in accordance with the Lancaster House Accords, the Constitution was amended to end the separate roll for white voters and to replace the whites whose reserved seats had been abolished; among the new members were 15 whites in the Senate and House of Assembly.
Elections in March 1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats. However, voter turnout was only 54%, and the campaign was not free and fair although the actual balloting was. Not satisfied with a de facto one-party state, Mugabe called on the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the creation of a de jure oneparty state in September 1990 and lost. The state of emergency was lifted in July 1990.
After the remaining restrictions of the Lancaster House agreement expired on April 18, 1990, the Government embarked on a campaign of amending the existing Constitution. Both the judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely criticized some of the first amendments, which were enacted in April 1991, because they restored corporal and capital punishment and denied recourse to the courts in cases of compulsory purchase of land by the Government.
During the 1990s students, trade unionists and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the Government. Students protested in October 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in May 1991 and May 1992, when they clashed with police. Trade unionists and workers were also vocal critics of the Government during this time. In June 1992, police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994, there was widespread industrial unrest. In August and September 1996, thousands of civil servants demanding salary increases organized a national strike and in October and November of the same year, nurses and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.
In part through its control of the media, the huge parastatal sector of the economy, and the security forces, the government has managed to keep organized political opposition to a minimum through most of the 1990s. Beginning in 1999, however, Zimbabwe has experienced a period of considerable political and economic upheaval. Opposition to President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF government has grown in recent years, in part due to worsening economic and human rights conditions. The opposition is currently led by the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), which was established in September 1999.
The MDC's first opportunity to test opposition to the Mugabe government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on a draft Constitution proposed by the government. Among its elements, the new Constitution would have permitted President Mugabe to seek two additional terms in office, granted government officials immunity from prosecution, and authorized government seizure of white-owned land. The referendum was handily defeated. Shortly thereafter, the government, through a loosely organized group of war veterans, sanctioned an aggressive land redistribution program often characterized by forced expulsion of white farmers and violence against both farmers and farm employees.
Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 were marred by localized violence, and claims of electoral irregularities and government intimidation of opposition supporters. Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly.
The March 2002 presidential election was preceded by months of intensive violence and intimidation against MDC supporters, and more than 50 people, mostly opposition supporters, were killed. President Mugabe was declared the winner over challenger Morgan Tsvangirai by a 56-to-42 percent margin. Most international observers condemned the election as seriously flawed—the pre-election environment was neither free nor fair, and the election itself was marred by significant fraud and rigging—but regional opinions were mixed. Soon after the election, the MDC filed a petition challenging Mugabe's victory, citing flaws in electoral laws, electoral irregularities and pre-election violence. As of the end of 2004, the case had not yet been decided.
As a result of this election, the United States, the EU, and other European countries imposed travel restrictions against senior Zimbabwean officials and embargoed the sale of arms to Zimbabwe. The U.S. and the EU also froze the financial assets of selected ruling party officials. The Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from council meetings for one year after its election observer team found the election neither free nor fair. At the midterm suspension review in March 2003, the three-country committee charged with deciding Zimbabwe's fate decided to continue the suspension until the next Commonwealth meeting in December 2003. At this meeting, despite vigorous campaigning by South Africa, Zimbabwe was not invited to attend the meeting and the Commonwealth decided to continue with the suspension. Immediately after this, Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.
Since the presidential election, the political climate has remained tense and intensely polarized. Violence escalated in the run up to rural council elections in September 2002 and various Parliamentary by-elections that year. Parliamentary by-elections in Kuwadzana, Highfield, Zengeza, and Lupane in 2003 were marred by widespread intimidation and beatings. The Government also passed legislation that curtailed free speech, free press, and rights of assembly. In March 2003, MDC leaders Morgan Tsvangirai, Welshman Ncube, and Renson Gasela went on trial for treason. Charges against Ncube and Gasela were subsequently dropped and in October 2004 Tsvangirai was found not guilty. As of January 2005, Tsvangirai faced an additional charge of treason.
The Government subscribed to the electoral principles of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) in 2004, but had failed to implement key elements of the principles by the end of the year. The MDC announced in late 2004 that it would not participate in parliamentary elections scheduled for March 2005 until fundamental flaws in the election environment were remedied.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
Since independence, Zimbabwe has enunciated and follows a policy of "active nonalignment." In practice, this has meant that Zimbabwe usually adhered to positions established by the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM); the Organization of African Unity (OAU), now the African Union; or, until it withdrew in 2003, the Commonwealth. Zimbabwe took a particular interest in the search for independence for Namibia (South-West Africa) from South Africa. In addition, as chairman of the front line states in southern Africa, Zimbabwe spoke out vigorously against the policies of apartheid in South African and frequently called for the imposition of economic sanctions against Pretoria. In November 1982, Zimbabwe was chosen by the OAU to hold one of the non-permanent seats in the UN Security Council for the following two years, which brought it onto the center stage of world events and gave it much-needed experience in international affairs. In 1986, Zimbabwe was the site of the NAM summit meeting; Prime Minister Mugabe became chairman of that organization, giving both Mugabe and Zimbabwe added international visibility and responsibility.
Zimbabwe maintains embassies in the United States, United Kingdom, Egypt, Angola, Kenya, Senegal, Nigeria, India, Sweden, France, China, Malaysia, Ethiopia, Namibia, Swaziland, Belgium, Tanzania, Botswana, the F.R.Y., Mozambique, Switzerland, Cuba, Canada, Japan, Australia, Germany, India, Italy, Russia, and South Africa. Sixty-six countries are represented in Harare as are several international organizations including UN institutions, the European Union, and the World Bank. Zimbabwe is a member of many international organizations, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF); African Development Bank; The World Trade Organization; Southern African Development Community (SADC); Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa (PTA); African Caribbean and Pacific Countries (ACP, in association with the EU); Group of 77 (G-77); Group of 15 (G-15); NAM; OAU (African Union); Customs Cooperation Council (CCC); and the World Federation of Trade Unions. The IMF Executive Board in July 2004 postponed until January 2005 deliberations on a recommendation for Zimbabwe's compulsory withdrawal from the institution. The IMF closed its Zimbabwe office in October 2004 in a decision not linked to the country's considerable arrears. Shortly after the March 2002 presidential election, the Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from leadership councils for one year after the Commonwealth's election observer team found the conduct of the election seriously flawed. After this suspension was upheld in December 2003, Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.
Historically, Zimbabwe's closest links have been with the U.K.; however, in the past four years, this relationship has been very strained. The Government has demonized Britain in the press, blaming the country for Zimbabwe's problems, and claiming that Britain reneged on promises made at Lancaster House to provide money for land reform. As with the U.S., thousands of Zimbabweans studied in the U.K., and private links remain close; however, official relations are strained.
Other West European countries have ties with Zimbabwe. The Scandinavian countries share certain philosophical affinities and have provided much assistance, as have France, Canada, and the Federal Republic of Germany. Portugal and Greece maintain links partly because of the sizable Portuguese and Greek communities in the country. Similar historical ties have led to the establishment of relations with India and Pakistan, and to a lesser extent, with Bangladesh. The Government's "look east" policy has led to closer diplomatic relations with East Asian countries such as Malaysia and China.
Zimbabwe maintains diplomatic relations with virtually every African country, although some ties are closer than others. African nations with embassies in Harare are Algeria, Angola, Botswana, DRC, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, the Sudan, Tanzania, and Zambia.
Ruled continuously by a liberation party, Zimbabwe developed and maintains close ties with a number of revolutionary states and organizations. Among these are the People's Republic of China, Cuba, the People's Democratic Republic of Korea, Iran, Libya, and the Palestinian Liberation Organization.
GOVERNMENT
According to Zimbabwe's Constitution, the president is head of state and head of government, and is elected for a 6-year term by popular majority vote. Parliament is unicameral and sits for up to a 5-year term. The 150-member Parliament consists of 120 elected seats, 10 chiefs elected by their peers but influenced by the president, eight provincial governors and 12 non-constituency MPs appointed by the president. The Parliament elects a Speaker from outside its membership and a Deputy Speaker from among its members.
The Zimbabwean Constitution institutionalizes majority rule and protection of minority rights. The elected government controls senior appointments in the public service, including the military and police, and the independent Public Service Commission is charged with making appointments at lower levels on an equitable basis.
The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court who, like the other justices, is appointed by the President on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission. The Constitution has a bill of rights containing extensive protection of human rights. The bill of rights could not be amended for the first 10 years of independence except by unanimous vote of the Parliament.
Zimbabwe is divided into eight provinces, each administered by a provincial governor appointed by the President. The provincial administrator and representatives of several service ministries assist the provincial governor. In 2004, the Mugabe government declared Bulawayo and Harare to be provinces with their own respective provincial governors even though there is no constitutional provision for these newly created positions.
Zimbabwe is governed by President Robert Mugabe and his Zimbabwean African National Union—Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), which has dominated the legislative and executive branches since independence in 1980.
Principal Government Officials
Last Updated: 12/14/04
President: Mugabe, Robert
Vice President: Msika, Joseph
Vice President: Mujuru, Joyce
Min. of Defense: Sekeramayi, Sidney
Min. of Education, Sports, & Culture: Chigwedere, Anneas
Min. of Energy & Power Development: Moyo, July
Min. of Environment & Tourism: Nhema, Francis
Min. of Finance & Economic Development (Acting): Murerwa, Herbert
Min. of Foreign Affairs: Mudenge, Stanislaus
Min. of Health & Child Welfare: Parirenyatwa, David
Min. of Higher & Tertiary Education: Murerwa, Herbert
Min. of Home Affairs: Mohadi, Kembo
Min. of Industry & International Trade: Mumbengegwi, Samuel
Min. of Justice, Legal, & Parliamentary Affairs: Chinamasa, Patrick
Min. of Lands, Agriculture, & Rural Resettlement: Made, Joseph
Min. of Local Govt., Public Works, & National Housing: Chombo, Ignatius
Min. of Mines & Mining Development: Midzi, Amos
Min. of Public Service, Labor, & Social Welfare: Mangwana, Paul
Min. of Water Resources & Infrastructural Development: Mujuru, Joyce
Min. of Small & Medium Enterprise Development: Nyoni, Sitembiso
Min. of Transport & Communications: Mushowe, Chris
Min. of Youth Development, Gender, & Employment Creation: Mutinhiri, Ambrose
Min. of State for Information & Publicity: Moyo, Jonathan
Min. of State for Security: Goche, Nicholas
Min. of State for Science & Technology: Muchena, Olivia
Min. of State for State Enterprises & Parastatals:
Min. of State for the Land Reform Program: Bhuka, Flora
Governor, Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe: Gono, Gideon
Ambassador to the US: Mubako, Simbi Veke
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Chidyausiku, Boniface Guwa
Zimbabwe maintains an embassy in the United States at 1608 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-332-7100). A Zimbabwean mission to the United Nations is located at 19 East 47th St., New York, NY.
ECONOMY
Properly managed, Zimbabwe's wide range of resources should enable it to support sustained economic growth. The country has an important percentage of the world's known reserves of metallurgical-grade chromite. Other commercial mineral deposits include coal, platinum, asbestos, copper, nickel, gold, and iron ore.
In the early 1970s, the economy experienced a modest boom. Real per capita earnings for blacks and whites reached record highs, although the disparity in incomes between blacks and whites remained, with blacks earning only about one-tenth as much as whites. After 1975, however, Rhodesia's economy was undermined by the cumulative effects of sanctions, declining earnings from commodity exports, worsening guerilla conflict, and increasing white emigration. When Mozambique severed economic ties, the Smith regime was forced to depend on South Africa for access to the outside world. Real gross domestic product (GDP) declined between 1974 and 1979. An increasing proportion of the national budget (an estimated 30%-40% per year) was allocated to defense, and a large budget deficit raised the public debt burden substantially.
Following the Lancaster House settlement in December 1979, Zimbabwe enjoyed a brisk economic recovery. Zimbabwe inherited one of the strongest and most complete industrial infrastructures in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as rich mineral resources and a strong agricultural base. Real growth for 1980-81 exceeded 20%. However, depressed foreign demand for the country's mineral exports and the onset of a drought cut sharply into the growth rate in 1982, 1983, and 1984. In 1985, the economy rebounded strongly due to a 30% jump in agricultural production. However it slumped in 1986 to a zero growth rate and registered a 3% contraction in GDP in 1987 due primarily to drought and foreign exchange crisis. Growth in 1988-90 averaged about 4.5%.
Since the mid-1990s, this infrastructure has been deteriorating rapidly, but remains better than that of most African countries. Poor management of the economy and political turmoil have led to considerable economic hardship. The Government of Zimbabwe's chaotic land reform program, recurrent interference with the judiciary, and maintenance of unrealistic price controls and exchange rates have led to a sharp drop in investor confidence. Since 2000, the national economy has contracted by as much as 35%; inflation vaulted over 600% (YOY) in early 2004 before subscribing to about 300% later in the year; and there have been persistent shortages of foreign exchange, local currency, fuel, and food. Direct foreign investment has all but evaporated.
Agriculture is no longer the backbone of the Zimbabwean economy. The government's controversial land reform efforts starting in 2000 have disrupted a significant portion of the commercial farm economy, leading to a sharp drop in tobacco and corn production. Corn is the largest food crop and tobacco has traditionally been the largest export crop, followed by cotton. Tobacco exports in 2004 were down about three-quarters from 2000 while both gold and cotton have now surpassed it in export earnings, the first time this has happened in the history of Zimbabwe.
Poor government management has exacerbated meager corn harvests caused by drought and floods, resulting in significant food shortfalls beginning in 2001. Although the Government forecasted harvests in 2004-05 sufficient to meet the country's food needs, most independent exports agreed there would be considerable shortfalls that would require imports or aid to make up the difference.
Zimbabwe has adequate internal transportation and electrical power networks. Paved roads link the major urban and industrial centers, and rail lines tie it into an extensive central African railroad network with all its neighbors, although internal rail lines are in a state of growing. In non-drought years, it has adequate electrical power, mainly generated by the Kariba Dam on the Zambezi River but augmented since 1983 by large thermal plants adjacent to the Wankie coalfield. Telephone service is problematic, and new lines are difficult of obtain.
The largest industries are iron, steel, metal products, food processing, chemicals, textiles, clothing, furniture and plastic goods. Most manufacturers have scaled back operations. Zimbabwe is not a member of the African Growth and Opportunity Act and a number of textile businesses have migrated to other African countries. Zimbabwean producers still export lumber products, certain textiles, chrome alloys and automobile windscreens to the U.S.
Zimbabwe is endowed with rich mineral resources. Exports of gold, asbestos, chrome, coal, platinum, nickel, and copper could lead an economic recovery one day. No commercial deposits of petroleum have been discovered, although the country is richly endowed with coal-bed methane gas that has yet to be exploited.
With international attractions such as Victoria Falls, the Great Zimbabwe stone ruins, Lake Kariba, and extensive wildlife, tourism historically has been a significant segment of the economy and contributor of foreign exchange. The sector has contracted considerably since 1999, however, due to the country's declining international image. The U.S. Government has a travel warning in effect.
Energy Resources
With considerable hydroelectric power and plentiful coal deposits for thermal power station, Zimbabwe is less dependent on oil as an energy source than most other comparably industrialized countries. Only about 15% of Zimbabwe's total energy consumption is accounted for by oil, all of which is imported. Zimbabwe imports about 1.2 billion liters of oil per year. Dependence on petroleum is managed through the price controls for vehicle fuels, the use of gasohol, and the substitution of diesel-electric locomotives on the railway system. Zimbabwe also has substantial coal reserves that are utilized for power generation, and recently discovered in Matabeleland province are coalbed methane deposits greater than any known natural gas field in Southern or Eastern Africa. In recent years, poor economic management and low foreign currency reserves have led to serious fuel shortages.
DEFENSE
At independence, then Prime Minister Mugabe declared that integrating Zimbabwe's then three armed forces would be one of his governments top priorities. The existing Rhodesian forces were combined with the two guerilla armies—the 20,000-strong ZANLA forces of ZANU-PF and the 15,000-strong ZIPRA forces of PFZAPU. In July 1994 the combined Zimbabwe Defense Forces Headquarters was created. Currently the armed forces of Zimbabwe are completely integrated and are composed of an army (ZNA) and an air force (AFZ). As of late 2004, the ZNA had an active duty strength of 33,000and the air force about 4,000 men. In 1999, the Government of Zimbabwe sent a sizeable military force into the Democratic Republic of Congo to support the government of President Laurent Kabila. Those forces were largely withdrawn in 2002.
U.S.-ZIMBABWEAN RELATIONS
After the Unilateral Declaration of Independence was issued in November 1965, the United States recalled its Consul General from Salisbury, closed the U.S. Information Service (USIS) library, and withdrew its Agency for International Development (USAID) and trade promotion officials. After 1965, the small remaining American consular staff continued to operate under authority of exequaturs issued by Queen Elizabeth II. Following declaration of a republic, the United States closed its Consulate General on March 17, 1970.
In 1971, despite Administration opposition, the U.S. Congress passed legislation permitting the United States to import strategic materials, such as chrome, from Rhodesia. The legislation, which took effect January 1, 1972, was of little real economic benefit to the Rhodesian economy, and the United States continued to support the balance of the sanctions program. After the legislation was repealed in March 1977, the United States once again enforced all sanctions.
The United States supported the United Nations and the United Kingdom consistently in their efforts to influence Rhodesian authorities to accept the principles of majority rule. Beginning in 1976, the United States began to take a more active role in the search for a settlement in cooperation with the British. The Anglo-American proposals of late 1977, aimed at bringing a negotiated end to the dispute, lent the weight of the United States to the search for a peaceful settlement and were a counterpart to the Soviet-Cuban use of military power to increase their influence in southern Africa. The United States supported British efforts to bring about and implement the settlement signed at Lancaster House on December 21, 1979 and extended official diplomatic recognition to the new government immediately after independence. A resident Embassy was established in Harare on Zimbabwe's Independence Day, April 18, 1980. The first U.S. Ambassador arrived and presented his credentials in June 1980. Until the arrival in 1983 of a resident Ambassador in Washington, Zimbabwe's relations with the U.S. were handled by its Ambassador to the United Nations (U.N.) in New York.
At the Zimbabwe conference on reconstruction and development (ZIMCORD) in March 1981, the United States pledged $225 million over a 3-year period toward the government's goals of postwar reconstruction, distribution and development of land, and the development of skilled manpower. By the end of FY 1986, the United States had contributed $380 million, the majority in grants, with some loans and loan guarantees. However, in July 1986, the U.S. Government decided to discontinue future bilateral aid to Zimbabwe as a result of a continuing pattern of uncivil and undiplomatic statements and actions by the Government of Zimbabwe in the United Nations and elsewhere. Aid programs previously agreed upon were not affected by the decision, nor were regional development programs that might benefit Zimbabwe. Full programming was restored in 1988.
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) assistance to Zimbabwe since the 1990s has focused on agriculture/food security, education, family planning, HIV/AIDS prevention, private sector development, low-income housing, micro-enterprise funding and democracy and governance programs, and emergency food aid. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) began a direct assistance program in August 2000. CDC's program consists of prevention of HIV transmission; improved care of persons with HIV/AIDS; surveillance, monitoring, and evaluation of the epidemic; and health sector infrastructure support.
Since 2000, the United States has taken a leading role in condemning the Zimbabwean Government's increasing assault on human rights and the rule of law, and has joined much of the world community in calling for the Government of Zimbabwe to embrace a peaceful democratic evolution. In 2002 and 2003, the United States imposed targeted measures on the Government of Zimbabwe, including financial and visa sanctions against selected individuals, a ban on transfers of defense items and services, and a suspension of non-humanitarian government-to-government assistance. Despite strained political relations, the United States continues as a leading provider of humanitarian assistance to the people of Zimbabwe, providing about $300 million in humanitarian assistance from 2002-2004, most of which was food aid.
President Mugabe visited Washington informally in September 1980, and on official working visits in September 1983, July 1991, and in 1995, meeting with Presidents Carter, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton respectively. He has also led the Zimbabwean delegation to the U.N. on several occasions, including most recently in 2004. Vice President George Bush visited Harare in November 1982 on a trip to several African countries.
Principal U.S. Embassy Officials
HARARE (E) Address: 172 Herbert Chitepo Ave., Harare, Zimbabwe; APO/FPO: No APO/FPO; Phone: 263-4-250593/4/5; Fax: 263-4-796488; INMARSAT Tel: 011-881631437730; Workweek: Mo-Th: 8:-5:30; Fri: 8:00-13:00; Website: usembassy.state.gov/zimbabwe
| AMB: |
Christopher W. Dell |
| AMB OMS: |
Donna Mmoh |
| DCM: |
Eric T. Schultz |
| DCM OMS: |
Anne Marie Witkowski |
| POL: |
Win Dayton |
| CON: |
Lauren Marcus |
| MGT: |
Michael A. Rynor |
| AFSA: |
Aziz Ahmed |
| AGR: |
Scott Reynolds (resident in Pretoria) |
| AID: |
Paul Weisenfeld |
| CLO: |
Victoria Hougaard |
| DAO: |
COL Dan Hampton |
| ECO: |
William Weissman |
| EEO: |
Win Dayton |
| FIN: |
Kevin Morgan |
| FMO: |
Curtis Hoyle |
| GSO: |
Dennie Ege |
| ICASS Chair: |
William Weissman |
| IMO: |
Aziz Ahmed |
| ISSO: |
Aziz Ahmed |
| LAB: |
Manav Jain |
| PAO/ADV: |
Amy Moser |
| RSO: |
Raymond Yates |
| Last Updated: 2/10/2005 |
TRAVEL
Consular Information Sheet
July 2, 2004
Country Description: Zimbabwe is a developing landlocked country in southern Africa. Tourist facilities are available in Victoria Falls, the Great Zimbabwe, major cities, and selected game parks. The capital city is Harare.
Entry/Exit Requirements: A passport, visa, return ticket, and adequate funds are required. U.S. citizens traveling to Zimbabwe for tourism, business, or transit can obtain a visa at the airports and border ports-of-entry, or in advance by contacting the Embassy of Zimbabwe in Washington, D.C. American citizens considering travel to Zimbabwe to visit tourist destinations, including eco-tourist sites or hunting safaris, or for business purposes, are advised that the Government of Zimbabwe has declared that American visitors with proper documentation will be allowed entry without difficulty. However, the Government of Zimbabwe has also signaled an intention to refuse entry to Americans who are believed to have a bias against the Zimbabwean government. In some instances, Zimbabwean immigration officials have used materials found in searches of travelers and their luggage as an explanation to refuse entry.
U.S. citizens who intend to work in Zimbabwe as journalists must apply for accreditation with the Zimbabwean Embassy at least one month in advance of planned travel. It is no longer possible to seek accreditation within Zimbabwe at the Ministry of Information. Journalists attempting to enter Zimbabwe without proper advance accreditation may be denied admission or deported. Journalists seeking to file stories from Zimbabwe must comply with the requirements of the Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act, which requires that journalists seek accreditation by paying a $100 (U.S.) application fee and, if accredited, a $500 (U.S.) accreditation fee.
Travelers should obtain the latest travel and visa information from the Embassy of Zimbabwe, 1608 New Hampshire Ave. NW, Washington, D.C. 20009; telephone (202) 332-7100. Overseas, inquiries should be made at the nearest Zimbabwean Embassy or Consulate. Upon arrival in Zimbabwe, travelers should keep all travel documents readily available, as well as a list of residences or hotels where they will stay while in Zimbabwe. Travelers to Zimbabwe must carry some form of identification at all times.
In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.
Safety and Security: The political, social, economic, and security situation in Zimbabwe remains fluid. Crime, especially burglaries and carjackings, is a serious problem. There are also ongoing incidents of land seizures, police roadblocks, political violence, intimidation in urban and rural areas, and business closures. U.S. citizens residing in or traveling to Zimbabwe should be aware that they are taking a risk in visiting any commercial farms, or straying outside normal tourist areas. The behavior of police or military personnel is not always predictable or rational. In November 2002, Zimbabwean police outside of Mutare killed an American citizen at a roadblock. Tourists may also be subject to harassment or arrest for photographing roadblocks, occupied commercial farms, and government buildings or installations. Resident or visiting Americans have been arrested, detained or threatened with expulsion for activities that would not be considered crimes in the U.S., including the expression of opinions regarding the current political regime in Zimbabwe.
Victoria Falls is a major tourist destination and is considered relatively safe, but visitors are urged to use the same security precautions they would exercise in any urban area of the developing world. While Harare is a clean and pleasant city, street crime is a serious problem, particularly in tourist areas. Harare has experienced a significant rise in the number of serious crimes committed during the past year. Although the vast majority of these crimes were nonviolent, there has been an increase in the use of firearms. The downtown sector of Harare is a particularly high crime area.
U.S. citizens residing in or traveling to Zimbabwe should be aware of continuing conditions that could affect their safety, including the outbreak of sporadic demonstrations driven by deteriorating economic conditions. Demonstrations occur in both urban and rural areas. Clashes between police and demonstrators have sometimes resulted in injuries to demonstrators as well as innocent bystanders. Political activity can also result in serious violence, and U.S. citizens are urged to avoid all political rallies and demonstrations.
Other ongoing conditions that could affect the safety of tourists in Zimbabwe include the occupation of commercial farms by the National War Veterans' Association and others. The war veterans have not targeted resident U.S. citizens for violence, but American tourists and residents should avoid areas where war veterans are active. In May 2002, an American was assaulted on an occupied farm by so-called war veterans.
Zimbabwe has experienced serious nationwide fuel shortages since January 2003. Since spot shortages occur intermittently, fuel supplies are not consistently available, and gas stations around the country may not have sufficient provisions at any given time. Travelers should carefully assess the fuel situation, keep their tanks full, and carry extra fuel before making any long-distance journeys.
U.S. citizens participating in nature and rafting excursions in Zimbabwe should be aware that even with an organized tour group, tourists are often allowed to participate in activities that may pose great risks to personal safety. Tragic attacks involving wildlife have occurred at M a na Pools. Visitors to Nyanga should avoid Pungwe Falls, Mterazi Falls, and Honde Falls. There have been numerous incidents of armed robbery, theft, assaults, and attempted rapes reported at these sites. Land mines along the Mozambique border, situated beyond the main tourist areas, make travel to that border area potentially hazardous.
For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov, where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found. Up to date information on security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or, for callers outside the United States and Canada, a regular toll line at 1-317-472-2328. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Standard time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays.)
Crime: Carjacking, street crime, rape, and credit card fraud are on the rise. Much of the increase in crime is due to high rates of unemployment and deteriorating economic conditions. Americans and other foreigners are perceived to be wealthy and could be targeted by criminals who operate in the vicinity of hotels, restaurants, and shopping malls in Harare and in major tourist areas such as Victoria Falls.
Travelers should watch their luggage at airports, railway and bus stations, and when making calls from public telephones. Travelers are advised to avoid displaying or carrying unnecessary valuables in public. Items such as passports, money, jewelry, and credit cards should be placed in hotel safety deposit boxes when not being used. Incidents have occurred, however, in which valuables left in room safes have been taken. Visitors should not carry large sums of money or multiple credit cards while shopping and should be cautious when leaving banks and automatic teller machines.
Teams of thieves frequently prey on victims in the downtown area of Harare. Purse-snatchers will often work in teams of two with one person acting as a diversion. A typical mugging involves a group of young males who surround and overwhelm their victim in a public area. Tourists and out of town shoppers continue to be considered lucrative targets. Cell phones are of particular interest to local thieves.
Travelers should avoid driving at night outside the low-density suburban areas. Car doors should be locked and windows rolled up. Handbags, wallets, and other items should be placed under car seats or in the trunk of the car. While stopped in traffic, drivers should look around to identify potential trouble and should leave sufficient maneuver room between their vehicle and the one in front. Travelers who suspect that their vehicle is being followed should drive to the nearest police station or some other public area for assistance. Drivers should be alert to "smash and grabs," where thieves break the windows of cars stopped at stop lights and take items from inside the car. Drivers should also be cautious of persons offering assistance in the event of a flat tire.
Travelers are encouraged to make two photocopies of the biographic/identification page of their passport. They should leave one copy at home with friends or relatives and carry the second copy with them for identification purposes.
The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends, and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.
U.S. citizens may refer to the Department of State's pamphlet, A Safe Trip Abroad, for ways to promote a trouble-free journey. The pamphlet is available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, via the Internet at http://www.gpoaccess.gov, or via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.
Currency Regulations: Travelers to Zimbabwe should carefully consider the method of payment used for lodging and other expenses. Due to high rates of inflation, prices may fluctuate dramatically and internationally convertible currency such as U.S. dollars or British pounds may be preferred. Zimbabwean currency, even if obtained by exchanging foreign cash or travelers checks in Zimbabwe, may not be accepted for payment of hotel bills or tour packages. There have been recent instances in which Zimbabwean authorities seized foreign currency from tourists/visitors who were unable to present documentation that they declared these funds when entering the country. Using a credit card could significantly increase the cost of purchases, as credit card companies calculate the U.S. dollar equivalent using the official government rate, which may be significantly lower than that used by local shopkeepers and vendors.
Visitors are encouraged to assess the currency situation in Zimbabwe at the time of travel.
It is illegal to exchange foreign currency for local currency with anyone other than an authorized currency dealer affiliated with the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe. Authorized currency dealers include the major banks, such as Standard Chartered and Barclays. Street vendors and private individuals may also offer this service, but they should be avoided. Travelers engaged in illegal money transactions and observed by the police will be immediately arrested and jailed pending a hearing before a magistrate court.
Game Parks: Zimbabwe offers opportunities for observation of wildlife in its natural habitat. Many tour operators offer structured, safe excursions into parks and other wildlife viewing areas for close observation of flora and fauna. However, travelers should keep a safe distance from animals and remain in vehicles or other protected enclosures when venturing into game parks. There have been a few instances in which tourists have faced last-minute cancellations or have had to leave a game park earlier than planned as a result of labor unrest and/or ownership disputes.
Hunting Safaris: Tourists who wish to hunt in Zimbabwe must be accompanied by a licensed operator, who is required to be registered and licensed by the Zimbabwe Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Travelers to Zimbabwe should ask for the operator's license number when booking a hunt and should check the authenticity of the license by contacting the Zimbabwe Association of Tour and Safari Operators (ZATSO) at: pangeti@zct.co.zw or bown@zct.co.zw. See the section on Firearms and Penalties below for information on carrying firearms and ammunition into Zimbabwe.
Medical Facilities: Medical facilities outside of Harare and Bulawayo are limited. Travelers are urged to carry an ample supply of their prescription medications because they will not likely be available in Zimbabwe. Provincial hospitals in rural areas are not equipped to provide medical care in case of a serious accident. Doctors, hospitals and air ambulance medical evacuation services often expect immediate cash payment for health services.
Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and if it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. U.S. medical insurance plans seldom cover health costs incurred outside the United States unless supplemental coverage is purchased. Further, U.S. Medicare and Medicaid programs do not provide payment for medical services outside the United States. However, many travel agents and private companies offer insurance plans that will cover health care expenses incurred overseas, including emergency services such as medical evacuations.
When making a decision regarding health insurance, Americans should consider that many foreign doctors and hospitals require payment in cash prior to providing service and that a medical evacuation to the United States may cost well in excess of 50,000 U.S. dollars. Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas often face extreme difficulties, whereas travelers who have purchased overseas medical insurance have found it to be lifesaving when a medical emergency has occurred. When consulting with your insurer prior to your trip, please ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas healthcare provider or if you will be reimbursed later for expenses that you incur. Some insurance policies also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death.
Useful information on medical emergencies abroad, including overseas insurance programs, is provided in the Department of State's Bureau of Consular Affairs brochure, Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad, available via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page.
Other Health Information: Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization's website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.
Because malaria is prevalent throughout Zimbabwe, except in Harare, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advise that travelers should take one of the following antimalarial drugs: mefloquine (Lariam – tm), doxycycline, or atovaquone/proguanil (Malarone – tm). The CDC has determined that a traveler who is on appropriate anti-malaria prophylaxis has a greatly reduced chance of contracting malaria. Travelers who become ill with a fever or flu-like illness while traveling in a malaria-risk area and up to one year after returning home should seek prompt medical attention and tell the physician their travel history and what antimalarials they have been taking. For additional information on malaria, protection from insect bites and antimalarials, please visit the CDC Travelers' Health website at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/malinfo.htm.
Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Zimbabwe is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance:
Safety of public transportation: Poor
Urban road conditions/maintenance: Good
Rural road conditions/maintenance: Fair
Availability of roadside assistance: Fair
The main roads throughout Zimbabwe are generally well maintained and access to service stations is available. Inter-city commuter bus travel, except by "luxury coaches," is dangerous due to overcrowding, inadequate maintenance, and drivers who fail to adhere to local speed limits and to obey traffic rules or regulations. The drivers are frequently fatigued, after driving for long periods of time without mandatory rest stops. Travelers should exercise extra caution when driving at night due to pedestrians (in dark clothing) and animals walking in the poorly lit roads. Motor vehicles on the road at night often have no headlights or tail lights. Traffic moves on the left and many people drive over the speed limit. The passing lanes are not always clearly marked, and road visibility at times can be restricted. Few roads outside the urban areas have shoulders or a breakdown lane.
It is illegal to operate a cellular telephone while driving in Zimbabwe. Drivers are required to wear seat belts or helmets if driving motorcycles but car seats are not required for small children. Travelers should pack several pairs of latex gloves in the event of a road accident involving serious injuries or bleeding, as Zimbabwe has one of the highest rates of HIV/AIDS infection in southern Africa.
The Ministry of Transport is the government authority responsible for road safety in Zimbabwe. There is no national established network of roadside emergency service. However, the Automobile Association of Zimbabwe, similar to the American Automobile Association, is willing to provide roadside emergency service to nonmembers for a fee. Travelers interested in contacting the service during their stay in Zimbabwe may contact AA Zimbabwe at 263-4-752-779. AA Zimbabwe's 24-hour emergency roadside helpline is 263-4-707-959.
For additional general information about road safety, including links to foreign government sites, see the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov/road_safety.html.
Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed the government of Zimbabwe's civil aviation authority as category 2—not in compliance with international aviation safety standards for oversight of Zimbabwe's air carrier operations. At this time there is no direct commercial air service by local carriers, nor economic authority to operate such service, between the U.S. and Zimbabwe. For further information, travelers may contact the department of transportation within the U.S. at 1-800-322-7873, or visit the FAA's Internet website at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm.
Firearms and Penalties: U.S. citizens who are temporarily carrying firearms and ammunition into Zimbabwe for purposes of hunting must register these items with the U.S. Bureau of Customs and Border Protection, using Customs Form 4457, when leaving the United States and upon reentry. U.S. citizens must also comply with the temporary export exemptions at 22 CFR 123.17(c), posted on the Directorate of Defense Trade Control's website at www.pmdtc.org (see Reference Library). U.S. citizens should also contact the Embassy of Zimbabwe in Washington, D.C. to find out what permits are required. Travelers are advised to make sure that all of the necessary documentation is in order before departing the United States.
Photography Restrictions: Zimbabwean authorities are extremely sensitive about the photographing of certain locations and buildings, including government offices, airports, military installations, official residences and embassies. Tourists have been arrested and incarcerated for several days for taking photos or videos of government buildings, including the president's palace. Prior written permission must be obtained from the appropriate government office before taking such photographs.
Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Zimbabwean law, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Zimbabwe are strict, and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines.
It is against the law to make any gesture or statements that might be construed as offensive to the president of Zimbabwe, a member of his government, or the Zimbabwean government itself.
Under the PROTECT Act of April 2003, it is a crime, prosecutable in the United States, for U.S. citizens or permanent resident aliens to exploit children sexually via pornography, the Internet or other means or to engage in illicit sexual conduct with a person under the age of 18 in a foreign country, regardless of whether there was intent. Under the Protection of Children from Sexual Predators Act of 1998, it is a crime to use the mail or any facility of interstate or foreign commerce, including the Internet, to transmit information about a minor under the age of 16 for criminal sexual purposes that include, among other things, the production of child pornography. This same law makes it a crime to use any facility of interstate or foreign commerce, including the Internet, to transport obscene materials to minors under the age of 16.
Sanctions: Under Executive Order 13288 of March 7, 2003, the United States placed sanctions on the property and economic assets of certain Zimbabwean government officials deemed most responsible for undermining Zimbabwe's democratic institutions. Under U.S. law, it is illegal for American citizens or residents to engage in any transaction or dealing with the targeted individuals or other entities designated by the Secretary of the Treasury under this sanctions program. U.S. citizens intending to engage in business or financial transactions in Zimbabwe are advised to consult the Department of Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control website at http://www.treas.gov/ofac for up-to-date information on these sanctions.
Consular Access: The U.S. Embassy does not always receive timely notification of the arrest of American citizens by the Zimbabwean police. U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and U.S. citizenship is readily available. If arrested, American citizens should ask to be allowed to contact the American Embassy.
Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, please refer to our Internet site at http://travel.state.gov/children's_issues.html or telephone Overseas Citizens Services at 1-888-407-4747. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m., Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. Federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use toll-free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328.
Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living in or visiting Zimbabwe are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Zimbabwe and obtain updated information on travel and security within Zimbabwe. Americans may register online by accessing our website at http://harare.usembassy.gov. The U.S. Embassy is located at 172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue, Harare, telephone (2634) 250-593/4, after-hours telephone (2634) 250-595; fax (2634) 722-618 and 796-488. The mailing address is P.O. Box 3340, Harare. The e-mail address is consular-Harare@state.gov. American citizen service hours are from 1:30pm to 3:30pm Monday through Thursday and from 8:00am to 11:30am on Fridays, except U.S. and Zimbabwean holidays.
Travel Warning
July 2, 2004
This Travel Warning is being issued to remind Americans of the political, economic and humanitarian crises in Zimbabwe. This supersedes the Travel Warning of January 22, 2004.
The Department of State warns U.S. citizens of the risks of travel to Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe continues to be in the midst of political, economic and humanitarian crises with serious implications for the security situation in the country. All U.S. citizens in Zimbabwe are urged to take those measures they deem appropriate to ensure their well-being.
The Zimbabwean economy is in precipitous decline, with extremely high rates of unemployment and inflation. The economic crisis has led to a serious increase in crime. Zimbabwe is still experiencing spot fuel shortages that can hinder in-country travel.
Zimbabwe's food shortages are expected to continue, although, it is difficult to assess the severity of the situation given government secrecy surrounding agricultural production. The humanitarian crisis is expected to worsen in coming months and may lead to possible large-scale migration of Zimbabweans to urban or border areas, with further disruption and an increase in crime and instability.
Commercial farms should be avoided at all times, especially those occupied by settlers or so-called "war veterans," who are typically young government supporters acting with impunity outside the law. In 2002, U.S. Embassy staff members were detained and one was beaten by war veterans on a farm near Harare.
American citizens visiting or resident in Zimbabwe are urged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Harare, located at 172 Herbert Chipeto Ave., telephone: (263) 4-250-593/4/5.
U.S. citizens who remain in Zimbabwe despite this Travel Warning should consult the Department of State's Consular Information Sheet for Zimbabwe, and the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, which are available via the Internet at http://travel.state.gov. American citizens may obtain up-to-date information on security conditions by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll-free in the United States or 317-472-2328 from overseas.
International Adoption
January 2005
The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.
Disclaimer: The information in this circular relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is provided for general information only. Questions involving interpretation of specific foreign laws should be addressed to foreign legal counsel.
Availability of Children for Adoption: In the past eight years, a U.S. citizen has adopted one Zimbabwean child.
Zimbabwean Adoption Authority: The government office responsible for adoptions in Zimbabwe is the Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare. If the Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare approves a request to adopt, the case is submitted to the Juvenile Courts for review of the adoption application. If this is approved, an adoption order is issued. Both the prospective adoptive parent and the child must be a resident of and domiciled in Zimbabwe at the time that the Juvenile Courts issue an adoption order.
Zimbabwean Adoption Procedures: Not every child in a Zimbabwean orphanage is available for adoption. There is no central registry for identifying available children. As soon as the prospective adoptive parent has identified a child, the Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare should be contacted to determine if the child is available for adoption. Prospective adoptive parents should also be aware that the adoption process could take from several months to over a year to conclude.
Age and Civil Status Requirements: Zimbabwean adoption law states that the prospective adoptive parent(s) must be 25 years old and at least 21 years older than the adoptive child. The Ministry of Public Service, Labor and Social Welfare may grant exceptions.
Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: There are no adoption agencies operating in Zimbabwe. The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy maintains a list of numerous attorneys practicing throughout Zimbabwe who may be able to assist prospective adoptive parents with adoptions. Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to research thoroughly the practices of any attorney prior to committing funds for an adoption.
Doctors: The U.S. Embassy (Consular Section) maintains current lists of doctors and sources for medicines, should either you or your child experience health problems while in Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwean Documentary Requirements: The following are the documentary requirements for the adoption of children in Zimbabwe:
- A signed consent form before the Juvenile Courts by the biological parent or legal guardian of the child, consenting to the adoption. This signed consent form should contain the address and name(s) of the adopting parent(s).
- A certificate endorsed by the Juvenile Courts stating that the biological parent or the legal guardian understands the nature and effect of the adoption order applied for. If granted, the parent or the legal guardian will be permanently deprived of his or her rights in respect of the child.
- The child had been medically examined and the medical report is on file with the Juvenile Courts.
- The birth certificate of the child is on file with the Juvenile Courts.
U.S. Immigration Requirements: A Zimbabwean child, even if adopted by an American citizen, must obtain an immigrant visa before he or she can enter the U.S. as a lawful permanent resident. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family.
Zimbabwean Embassy in the United States: Embassy of the Republic of Zimbabwe; 1608 New Hampshire Avenue, NW; Washington, DC 20009; Tel: (202) 332-7100.
U.S. Embassy in Zimbabwe: Embassy of the United States of America; 172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue; Harare, Zimbabwe; Tel: 263-4-250-593/4; Consular Fax: 263-4-722-618.
Questions: Specific questions regarding adoption in Zimbabwe may be addressed to the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Zimbabwe. You may also contact the Office of Children's Issues, SA-29, 2201 C Street, NW, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-2818, telephone (202) 735-7000 with specific questions.
