UNITED KINGDOM

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated May 1996. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

The UNITED KINGDOM of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarch. Its origins and traditions are found in each of its four component parts—England, Scotland, Wales, and the six counties which occupy the northeast section of Ireland. England was first unified under a Saxon king in the ninth century. Wales eventually became part of that kingdom, as did Ireland before the end of the 13th century. In 1603, James I of England, who also ruled as James VI of Scotland, united the English and Scottish dynasties. In 1707, the Treaty for the Union of England and Scotland provided that the two countries "should be forever united into one kingdom." One parliament (the Parliament of Great Britain) served as the supreme authority in both countries.

In 1801, the Act for the Union of Great Britain and Ireland, joining the two parliaments, established the present-day U.K. In 1922, however, the 26 counties of southern Ireland became a self-governing, independent entity (the Republic of Ireland, or Eire).

MAJOR CITIES

London

London is one of the largest cities in Europe, the U.K.'s seat of government, and the center of commerce, education, and arts. Like all cities, London attracts people of all backgrounds who come for many reasons, both to visit and to live. As a city which has been preeminent for centuries, it is full of a rich and varied history.

The name London has no specific meaning. It was originally used to describe the city of London proper, still referred to as "the City," and now the financial and banking center of London. Today, the heart of the city consists of "the City" and the Borough of Westminster, also known commonly as the "West End." With the steady growth of the capital since the Middle Ages, surrounding districts were absorbed into the huge metropolis of today. The latest census (1994) showed that London had a population of nearly 7 million in an area of 157,944 hectares.

Greater London actually consists of 32 semi-independent boroughs (plus "the City"). Each has dozens of business, residential, and cultural centers of its own. Greater London has followed extensive coordinated post-war reconstruction programs, including successful intensive efforts to clean facades of famous surviving buildings.

Food

London markets have a large selection of foods. Out-of-season fruits and vegetables are imported from around the world, and because of the diverse foreign community in London, ingredients for cuisines from nearly anywhere in the world can be found here. Supermarkets stock fresh, frozen, and packaged goods, nearly always at prices substantially higher than those in the U.S. British foods, eating habits, kitchen equipment, and terminology are different from U.S. counterparts.

Clothing

Mediumweight fall and winter clothing is needed about 9 months of the year. Lightweight clothing is worn in summer. Be prepared for rain and cool weather at whatever time of year you arrive, as even summer has many cool days.

London department stores and specialty shops offer ready-made clothing for all family members in most quality ranges, but clothing costs considerably more than in the U.S., except during the January sales. The fashionable shopping districts offer a full range of designs from conservative to avant-garde.

Shoes in narrow and wide sizes are hard to find, particularly men's sizes larger than 12. Other sizes are available in many styles and makes but are expensive. People walk a good deal in London. Good walking shoes are essential.

Attire in London for office, theater, shopping, sporting events, and social occasions is in darker colors and more conservative styles than in the U.S. Casual attire often means a coat and tie. Instructions to wear "lounge suit," "day dress," "town coat," "tenue de ville," "informal," and "business suit," indicate the requirement for dark business suits for men and cocktail dresses for women. Formal, black tie, dinner jacket, tuxedo, and smoking jacket mean long gowns for women (or short, dressy gowns, depending on current fashion) and black tie for men.

Several shops in London rent formal wear. They stock appropriate attire for every formal occasion, from the Queen's Garden Party and Derby Races to opening nights at the theater.

Men: Collar sizes are the same as in the U.S., but it is hard to find long-sleeved shirts in larger collar sizes.

Women: Women in London usually wear long dresses or skirts for evening affairs, including informal receptions, and cocktail and dinner parties.

Supplies and Services

Almost anything is available from London's plentiful shops and stores. Stores compare favorably with those found in large U.S. cities. Household items, cosmetics, and toiletries of most varieties are available. Drugstores carry a complete range of medicines, medical preparations, and health aids. All prices are high.

Neighborhood shopping areas are scattered throughout greater London. Some American-type shopping malls opened in the 1980s. Virtually all shopping areas (the High Streets) offer common services: laundry and dry-cleaning, hair-dressers and barbers, gas stations, drugstores (chemists), hardware stores (iron mongers), travel and ticket agencies, restaurants, flowers hops, gifts hops, banks, libraries, newsstands (news agents), book-shops, jewelers, and the ever-present pubs, to mention a few.

Religious Activities

All major religions are represented in London. The Church of England is the established church, but various Protestant, Roman Catholic, Jewish, and other faiths have houses of worship in the London area. The American Church in London (Protestant) offers independent, interdenominational services specifically intended for Americans resident in London. It has Sunday school classes, fellowship meetings, Bible study, and youth groups. The Saturday Times lists the times of services for the following Sunday.

Education

The London area has several schools offering American-curriculum instruction from nursery school through high school.

Parents must decide whether to keep their children in the U.S. system or introduce them into the British or international systems. It is generally agreed that the British educational system is good for children in their early years, when they can adapt easily, but that older children will find the adjustment more difficult.

Three of the most widely recognized national curriculums are the U.K. General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSEs) and "A" levels, the U.S. Graduation Diploma, and the International Baccalaureate (IB). There are criticisms of all three systems. The downside of the British curriculum is that it forces students to specialize quite early in their education. The opposite is said of the Graduation Diploma or the IB.

The British GCSE curriculum allows for specialization at age 16, when students choose two or three subjects for study up to Advanced Level ("A" level). The next 2 years of intensive study are viewed as preparation for university work.

The IB is administered by International Baccalaureate Offices in Geneva and London. There is a panel of examiners working together from many countries and cultures. The baccalaureate fulfills university entrance requirements in more than 40 countries. This qualification is aimed at providing a broad education with sufficient flexibility of subject choice to suit individual interests and abilities. Universities all over the world are coming to respect the IB, and, in the U.S., an IB candidate is sometimes eligible to go straight into the second year of a degree course.

It is wise to start considering schools as soon as you know you are coming to London. You might want to write directly to the school of your choice. They will send you a registration packet. If you have selected a school, contact the school and ask to preregister your child until you can complete and return the registration packet.

Following are some of the American and international schools used most often by American families, because of their good academic standards and their proximity to neighborhoods where Americans live:

American School in London: ASL is a private, coeducational day school, accredited in the U.S., offering instruction from nursery school through grade 12. The school is located in central London. There is a school bus service, and public transportation is good. No school uniform is required. Entrance requirements include school records for 3 1/2 years, forms of recommendation, and a candidate questionnaire for grades 5 to 12. Senior-year applicants require SAT or PSAT scores. Extracurricular activities are music, drama, and sports.

American School in London
2-8 Loudoun Road
London NW8 ONP
Tel. 44 171 722-0101

The American Community School: ACS is a private, coeducational day school which provides a progressive education from pre-kindergarten through grade 12 for children of all nationalities using an American curriculum. There are two geographically distinct campuses: one northwest of London, one southwest. Entrance requirements include an interview, previous school records, and testing for high school students. The IB is offered. Extracurricular activities include drama, music, sports, and crafts.

American Community School-Surrey Campus-Heywood
Portsmouth Road
Cobham, Surrey KT11 1BL
Tel. 44 932 67251

American Community School-Middlesex Campus
Hillingdon Court
Vine Lane
Uxbridge, Middlesex UB10 OBG
Tel. 44 0895 59771

Marymount International School: Marymount is a day and boarding school for girls in grades 7 to 12. It is one of a group of European Marymount Schools established by the Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Mary, a Roman Catholic foundation. It is accredited in the U.S. The international student body represents many religious affiliations. Students follow the American curriculum until age 16 when they may choose the IB rather than the high school diploma. Entrance requirements include previous school records, character and social references, and an interview. Extracurricular activities are educational tours, music, drama, and sports. Bus service is available for day students.

Marymount School London
George Road
Kingston Upon Thames
Surrey KT2 7PE
Tel. 44 181 949-0571

The American School in Switzerland, England: TASIS schools are found in Switzerland, Greece, France, and England. TASIS England is a coeducational boarding and country day school for children in pre-kindergarten through grade 12. It is accredited in the U.S. Boarders attend from grades 7 to 12. The curriculum followed is American. Entrance requirements include three teacher recommendations, official transcript, and an interview, unless distance prohibits that. Extracurricular activities are drama, music, clubs, and field trips.

TASIS England American School
Coldharbour Lane
Thorpe, Surrey TW20 8TE
Tel. 44 932 565252

Southbank—The American International School: Southbank is a coeducational day school for students in grades 6 to 13. The school designs an individual study program for each pupil based upon previous education, needs, interests, and potential. Pupils can study for GCSE, the high school diploma, or the IB. High priority is given to the acquisition of proficiency in a second language. The school is located north of Holland Park in London's West End, well served by public transportation. Entrance requirements include an interview, previous school records, and a letter of recommendation. Extracurricular activities are music, drama, travel, and sports.

Southbank—The America International School
36-38 Kensington Park Road
London W11 3BU
Tel. 44 171 229-8230

London Central High School: London Central is a Department of Defense School (DoDDS), 35 miles northwest of central London. It is accredited in the U.S., and offers a program for grades 7 to 12. It has advanced placement courses, study enrichment courses, and programs for somewhat handicapped students. Entrance requirements include previous school records and a health certificate. Extracurricular activities include music, theater, publications, and student council.

London Central High School
High Wycombe Air Station
Daws Hill Lane
Buckinghamshire
Tel. 44 494 455188

West Ruislip DOD Elementary School: This DoDDS school for children in kindergarten through grade 6 is about 13 miles northwest of central London. There are special education and hearing-impaired programs. There are two bus pickup points for children living in central London. Entrance requirements include previous school records.

West Ruislip DOD Elementary School
RAF West Ruislip
Ickenham Road
Ruislip HA4 7DS
Tel. 44 8956 32870

State-operated schools: With few exceptions, State secondary schools provide a general education to the age of 16 under the system known as "comprehensive" education. Some schools have the facility to provide advanced education to age 18.

The large size of most state secondary schools makes it possible to offer many combinations of subjects; the disadvantage is that your child's special needs may be overlooked. The British system is not well designed to accommodate transfers between schools, much less between countries. Courses and programs vary from school to school, and the newcomer must catch up on missed work.

For information on state schools, contact:

Department of Education
Headquarters
Sanctuary Building
Great Smith Street
SW1P 3BT
Tel. 44 171 925-5000

You must be able to tell them where you are living so they can give you information on schools in your area.

Private Schools: These schools usually offer only the most academic line of education and select those students who are likely to succeed. Be prepared for a competitive entrance process. Private schools (called public schools in the U.K.) are generally smaller than state schools.

Because of the large number of private schools in the London area, you are urged to contact one of the following educational consultants for more specific information:

Gabbitas Thring Educational
Trust, Ltd.
Broughton House
6 Sackville Street
Piccadilly, London W1X 2BR
Tel. 44 171 734-0601

Independent Schools Information Service (ISIS)
26 Buckingham Gate
London SW1E 6AJ
Tel. 44 171 222-7274 or 222-7353

For information on Catholic state schools, contact:

The Catholic Education Service
41 Cromwell Road
London SW7
Tel. 44 171 584-7491

Special Educational Opportunities

Each London Borough council offers a comprehensive selection of part-time, day, and evening courses for adults at locations throughout the city. The cost is minimal, and the selection is endless. Registration is in September, but places are sometimes available later in the year. The publication, Floodlight, with a full listing of courses, is on sale in bookstores and news agents in August. Local libraries have copies. There are innumerable courses on cooking, flower arranging, fine arts, and nearly anything else of interest.

Many American colleges and universities offer undergraduate and graduate programs here. Quality of programs varies, and costs range from moderate to expensive. Transfer of credits to and from other institutions can be a major problem. It is highly recommended that families seeking university education investigate costs, programs, and transferability before making their decisions.

The Educational Advisory Service of the Fulbright Commission, at 62 Doughty Street, London WC1N 2LS, publishes a list of American colleges and universities in the U.K. They also have the largest collection of U.S. university/college catalogs, and have three full-time advisers.

Sports

You can participate in virtually every popular sport in London, outdoors and indoors, team and individual. Borough-run facilities are free or very inexpensive.

Spectators can enjoy both professional and amateur games year round. The annual Oxford-Cambridge Boat Race brings thousands to the footpaths along the Thames. The Henley Regatta, held in July, is host to rowing entries from all over the world. Horse lovers find pleasure at the major races of the year—Epsom Downs, Ascot, and Derby.

The most popular sports are soccer and rugby in winter, cricket and tennis in summer, and horse and golf events year round. TV coverage of these events is extensive. Tennis at Wimbledon, cricket at Lord's, football (soccer) at Wembley, and dog shows at Olympia are a few of the highlights of a sports program that is full, continuous, and of international caliber.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

London is well known as a sightseer's paradise. Whatever personal interests you have, London's museums, art galleries, libraries, historic places, pageantry, and parks are bound to fulfill them. Sightseers can explore the city by bus, on foot, and by boat on the Thames. A full calendar of daily events is available in several weekly publications.

Entertainment

Culturally, London is one of the richest cities on Earth. It has symphony orchestras, chamber music ensembles, and pop and rock concerts. The theater in London is unrivaled. World-famous British, American, and international artists are often on stage. Productions routinely move from Broadway to London and vice versa. There are year-round offerings of opera, ballet, and symphonic music at the Royal Opera House, the Sadler's Wells Hall, the Barbican and South Bank Centers, and the Royal Festival Hall. In addition to top-quality resident companies, famous continental and American groups often visit.

Central London offers a wide range of first-run films at theaters, film clubs, and art theaters. Going out to the movies is as easy and informal as in the U.S.

Restaurants, cafes, and tearooms of every size and price range abound here. Food ranges from fast food fare to exclusive English and international cuisine. Pubs and afternoon tea are two English traditions that should not be missed.

Museums and art galleries in London contain some of the most comprehensive collections of objects of artistic, archeological, scientific, historical, and general interest ever to exist in one city. The most notable are the British Museum, Victoria and Albert Museum, National Gallery, Tate Gallery, National Portrait Gallery, Imperial War Museum, Museum of London, Wallace Collection, British Museum of Natural History, Geological Museum, and Science Museum.

The British seem to go out of their way to provide entertainment for children. This is especially true during summer and at Christmas. Some of the popular outings are special theater productions, pantomimes and puppet shows, the zoo, concerts, and film festivals.

Social Activities

The American Club, composed of American and British business representatives, has good eating facilities. It sponsors activities such as special film showings, golf tournaments, celebrations of American national holidays, entertainment of distinguished visitors, and the promotion of fellowship between its members and the local community. The American Women's Club provides social and community service activities.

Although we share a common language and a special relationship with Great Britain, it is wise to remember that it is still a foreign country. To expect attitudes and conventions to be the same as those in the U.S. will make the transition to life in Britain frustrating. It is tempting to feel that the "settling in" process will be faster and easier in Britain than in other countries, but most people find it takes just as long as in other countries.

Private social and political clubs are a prominent social feature. Many have flourished for longer than 100 years. Largely frequented for their social advantages, all have their own premises, including licensed restaurants. Entrance fees and subscriptions vary. Most men's and women's clubs are exclusive, but members can entertain friends in a comfortable atmosphere.

The English Speaking Union is open to men and women who are citizens of the U.S. or Commonwealth countries. It has a dining room and offers a range of activities.

Focus Information Services, founded in 1982 by a group of American women familiar with international relocation, aids foreigners in adapting quickly to life in the U.K. They offer guidance on education and career opportunities, and provide foreigners with a chance to meet people of similar interests. There is a membership fee for seminars, but anyone may phone for general help.

Belfast

Northern Ireland is a province of the U.K., created by the partition of Ireland in 1921. About the size of Connecticut, it has about 1.7 million people—some 297,000 in Belfast.

Although part of the U.K., Northern Ireland has its own distinct identity, a product of its history and the mixing of Irish, Scottish, and English traditions. Its beautiful rolling green countryside—underpopulated by European standards—is dotted with historic monuments, from stone-age tombs to great 19th-century houses. Right in the middle is Lough Neagh, the largest lake in the British Isles. Northern Ireland has strong ties with the U.S. It claims 13 U.S. Presidents with ties to the province, and many families have relatives living in the U.S. Consular presence dates back to 1796. More than 24 U.S. manufacturing companies are located in the province, employing 10% of the industrial workforce.

Belfast was one of the U.K.'s first great industrial cities, making its reputation in the 19th century on shipbuilding, linen, and textiles. It is beautifully situated in the Valley of the River Lagan, which flows into a long bay called Belfast Lough, and is surrounded by hills. The city's name derives from two Gaelic words: "beal," a river mouth, and "fierste," hurry or haste.

The central part of the city was badly affected by the violence of the 1970s, but in recent years buildings have been restored, shopping greatly improved, and many new restaurants opened. The center of Belfast has been turned into a pedestrian mall, which draws crowds of shoppers. Although most of the city's substandard housing has been replaced by attractive public housing, several parts of the city are blighted by the economic and security effects of the "The Troubles." The rest of Belfast and its tranquil suburbs seem remote from the violence, but security forces are often evident. Generally, positive signs of progress can be seen and citizens have a resilient "business-as-usual" attitude. Political events in 1994 and 1995 have fostered much hope for resolving "The Troubles."

Northern Ireland has a temperate oceanic climate similar to that of the Pacific Northwest, but seasonal changes are less pronounced. Weather is often overcast and rainy (relieved by "sunny intervals"). It must be noted that most of the rain is merely a light mist. Because of Belfast's northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies greatly between summer (about 18 hours in June) and winter (about 8 hours in December). The sunniest weather is in May and June. Light snow falls occasionally in January and February, but temperatures seldom remain below freezing for more than a day.

Food

It is not necessary to bring anything except specialty foods. Daily food needs are bought primarily at one of the many local supermarkets that are well stocked with local and imported products and seasonal fresh items. A large selection of American groceries and frozen foods or reasonable substitutes are available on the local economy. Local prices are higher than in the U.S., but conveniences include a milk-man, butcher, and vegetable or egg person available for daily household delivery. Most popular brands of hard liquor, wines, liqueurs, and mixers are available at local stores. Beers (European and American) and a wide variety of American soft drinks are also available. It must be noted that the Northern Irish excel at bread making, and bakeries are varied and abundant.

Clothing

Clothing styles are the same as in the U.S.; what is proper in the U.S. is acceptable in Belfast.

Men: Woolen clothing can be worn most of the year. Tropicalweight and wash-and-wear suits are seldom needed, but they may be useful on trips to southern parts of the British Isles and Europe. Ready-made or custom-made suits can be purchased both locally and in London, though not cheaply. Local suits are tailored somewhat differently than American suits and may not be to your liking. Rainwear is needed but can be purchased locally.

Women: Attractive, well-made women's clothing, very similar to American fashion, is available in Belfast. The prices are considerably higher than American-bought merchandise, but the quality is generally excellent.

Children: Children's clothing follows U.S. styles, with emphasis on casual slacks and jeans for both boys and girls. Shorts are worn by children for summer play, weather permitting. Children's dresses, slacks, and shirts are available, but prices are higher than in the U.S.

Supplies and Services

Toiletries, medical prescriptions, cosmetics, personal supplies, tobacco, and other sundry items are carried locally.

All basic services such as tailoring, dry cleaning, laundry, shoe repair, beauty shops, etc., are found in Belfast.

Religious Activities

Churches abound in Belfast. The major denominations are Roman Catholic, Presbyterian, Church of Ireland (Episcopalian), and Methodist. Other faiths represented include Lutheran, Christian Scientist, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Baptist, and Jewish.

Education

No American or international school is available in Belfast. However, numerous excellent primary and secondary level schools offer high academic standards and good extracurricular activities. Relative emphasis on subjects is not the same as in American schools, nor are transfers from one level of education to another. Tuition-free elementary and secondary schools similar to U.S. public schools are available, but Foreign Service families usually prefer to send children to preparatory or grammar (university preparatory) schools that are more like private schools in the U.S. Students who pass certain tests or who achieve high academic standards do not have to pay grammar school tuition. The school year extends from the first week in September through the end of June.

Recommended preparatory (primary) schools (ages 5-11) are:

Fullerton Preparatory School
(preparatory school for Methodist College: coeducational)
Lisburn Road
Belfast 9

Inchmarlo School
(preparatory school for the Royal
Belfast Academical Institution; boys only)
Cranmore Park
Belfast 9

Hunterhouse College (girls only)
Finaghy
Belfast 10

St Brides Primary School
Derryvolgie Avenue
Belfast 9

Recommended grammar (secondary) schools are:

Methodist College (coeducational)
1 Malone Road
Belfast 9

Royal Belfast Academical Institution
(boys only)
1 College Square East
Belfast 1

Richmond Lodge (girls only)
85 Malone Road
Belfast 9

Victoria College (girls only)
Cranmore Park
Belfast 9

Dominican College (girls only)
Fortwilliam Park
Belfast 15

Lagan College (integrated, coeducational)
63 Church Road
Castlereagh

Belfast Royal Academy (coeducational)
Cliftonville Road
Belfast 14

Belfast has schools for children with special educational needs.

Preschool children under age of 4½ can be placed in a variety of programs including mother/toddler play-groups run by several of the churches (no fees); private nursery schools (parents pay fees); education and library board nursery schools or nursery classes attached to schools (like U.S. kindergartens—no fees); or private play-groups (no fees).

Special Educational Opportunities

Queens University Belfast, known for its school of medicine, offers courses in most fields of study. Queens University and the Rupert Stanley College of Further Education offer a variety of adult education courses.

Sports

Belfast is an excellent city for sports enthusiasts, who can enjoy many sports inexpensively. The city environs have 10 golf clubs. Many clubs offer squash, tennis, badminton, yachting, and sailing. Several public leisure centers offer swimming and aerobics; Queens University has a complete physical education center. The country offers horseback riding; stag and fox hunts; fishing (salmon and trout); and geese, duck, snipe, and small game shooting. A few good beaches are within easy access, but the water is cold. Spectator sports include horse racing, soccer, rugby, cricket, Gaelic sports, motorcycling, and auto racing. Belfast also offers several bike and running races.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

Northern Ireland offers opportunities for biking, "pony-trekking," water skiing, camping, sign posted walks and nature trails for hiking, and mountain climbing. All parts of Ireland, including the magnificent West Coast, are easily reached by car. Driving is on the left side of the road. Traveling by car is the most efficient and agreeable way of getting to see the area. The road network is good with 70 miles of motorway for those in a hurry, about 1,500 miles of dual carriageway and "A" roads, and very low traffic density. The two main motorways striking out west from Belfast skirt Lough Neah to the south (M1) and north (M2). Over 46 parks and playing field sites are currently under the control of the Belfast Parks Department. The National Trust administers several attractive historical and wilderness sites in Northern Ireland.

Belfast has a museum, castle, theaters, art galleries, antique shops, zoo, and botanical garden. The Ulster Folk and Transport Museum is about 20 minutes by car from Belfast city center. One-and-a-half hours' drive from Belfast is the Ulster-American Folk Park. Air, rail, and ferry services connect Northern Ireland to Scotland, England, and Wales, though fares are high.

Accommodations (hotels, bed and breakfasts, guest houses, self-catering cottages) are plentiful and of high standard, and, whatever you are planning to do, there are several choices of places to stay, varying in price from moderate to expensive. The booklet, All The Places To Stay, published annually, lists all accommodations approved by the Northern Ireland Tourist Board.

Dublin, a 3-hour drive from Belfast or about 2½ hours by train, offers excellent theater, a variety of restaurants, and a cosmopolitan environment. Shopping is more varied in Dublin, especially for women's clothing, though generally more expensive.

Entertainment

Belfast is experiencing a cultural and culinary renaissance. The Grand Opera House and Ulster Hall attract national and international touring companies regularly, bringing opera, ballet, and theater. Frequent concerts are given by a good local symphony orchestra. Several good theater companies present plays, including those about the contemporary situation, in a number of modern theaters. The Lyric Theatre is of particular note. Each November a cultural festival, second only to Edinburgh in the U.K., brings 3 weeks of entertainment to the city. Occasional fairs and exhibitions are held at local centers. Cinemas and a film club at Queens University offer first-run and classic films. The Northern Ireland Arts Council is deeply involved in promoting a stimulating variety of arts throughout Belfast.

Many good restaurants, taverns, and cafes are common in Belfast. Some restaurants offer "pub grub" and other simple menus, while a number of French, Italian, Indian, and Chinese restaurants provide good meals at reasonable prices. Also a number of tea and coffee shops can be found.

Crafts are in abundance throughout Northern Ireland. A wide range of factories with shops offer daily tours of their works.

Social Activities

Besides those retired in Northern Ireland, fewer than 500 Americans live in the Belfast area. All are well integrated into the local community. The province has no specifically American organizations, except for the Ulster-American Woman's Club, which is quite active.

Northern Ireland people are very hospitable, and almost all areas of society are open to contact. Social life is built mainly around a private circle of friends and acquaintances and tends to develop among family, professional, club, and school lines. Social functions are similar to those found elsewhere, such as cocktail parties and dinners. You can also join any number of special-interest clubs or groups (golf, bridge, hiking, stamp collecting, etc.) or the Rotary Club.

Edinburgh

Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland and one of the most beautiful cities in Europe. The visual focal point of the city is Edinburgh Castle, which sits upon a high rocky hill in the city center. Much of the city's Georgian and Victorian architecture is carefully preserved in virtually its original appearance. The city's population of 444,000 is swollen by hundreds of thousands of visitors from all parts of the world, particularly during summer months and the Edinburgh International Festival which begins about August 15 each year and lasts 3 weeks.

Food

The variety of food products available presents no problem to the American resident and there are a number of Safeway supermarkets in town. Food prices are about the same as in the U.S. Local meats are of good quality but generally more expensive than in the U.S. Bakery products are good and prices are reasonable. Milk is of excellent quality and perfectly safe. American baby foods are available locally.

Clothing

All types of clothing are sold locally. Prices of some high-quality cotton dresses, shirts, and lingerie are the same as in the U.S. but generally of better quality. Extra-tall or large sizes can be difficult to find.

Men: Ready-made men's suits are widely available. Materials and quality are excellent.

Women: A wide range of clothing is available of both British and continental manufacture and styling. Women's suits in the medium-price range are nicely tailored and styled. Summerweight clothing is not necessary in Edinburgh, but a few items may be useful for those rare days when the temperature rises above 70°F. Medium-quality nylon hose compare favorably with American brands. Sweaters, woolen dresses, and winter coats are necessary for daytime wear and available at good prices. Since houses tend to be cooler, a type of wool heavier than in the U.S. can be useful in Edinburgh. Hats and gloves are occasionally required for formal daytime occasions. Suits are appropriate for luncheons and informal cocktail parties. Women's high-quality shoes are at least as expensive as in the U.S.

Children: Good quality clothes are available for children. Bring or buy locally warm clothing, underwear, and overshoes for preschool children. Private schools require special uniforms that must be purchased locally.

Supplies and Services

Toiletries, medicines, and other sundries commonly used for housekeeping, household repairs, and entertaining are available at local stores.

All basic services are available in Edinburgh.

Beauty shops provide service and prices comparable to those in the U.S.

Religious Activities

Most denominations common in the U.S. have places of worship in Edinburgh. The Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) is the established church. The Catholic and Episcopal Churches are also well represented. In addition, Methodist, Mormon, Christian Scientist, Baptist, and Jewish places of worship are available. Sunday school and youth fellowship groups are organized on much the same basis as in the U.S.

Education

There is an excellent educational system operating in Edinburgh from primary through university levels. Many parents send children to day nurseries from the age of 3 until they begin the equivalent of first grade at the age of 5. Many pre-school nurseries and private day schools are available within a reasonable distance of residential districts. In addition to coeducational schools, separate schools are available for boys and girls. Private schools are generally better academically than the State (city-run) schools.

Because of the distance to most private schools, parents need to provide transportation each day or join a carpool. Edinburgh has no school bus service. Many older children take city buses to school. Fees at private schools are high, and most require pupils to wear locally purchased uniforms. Tuition does not cover lunches and outside activities.

Scottish schools place heavy stress on the three "Rs" from the time the 5-year-old begins school. At the end of the first year of school, the 5-year-old (who would have been in kindergarten in the U.S.) is expected to read, write, compose simple stories, and do double-digit addition and subtraction. With continued emphasis on basic subjects, Scottish children in junior and senior high school are usually well ahead of their American counterparts in these areas, often as much as 2 years in some subjects. Moreover, there is much earlier emphasis on mathematics, the sciences, and languages. Therefore, be prepared for a rather difficult transition period as older children work to catch up with Scottish classmates. Nevertheless, students who have done well in American schools usually do well in Scottish schools after they make the transition.

Not only the curriculum, but the entire system of education, is different in Scottish schools. A student can graduate from school at age 16. At this time, the student has had 11 years of education and completed a series of difficult exams called "O" (ordinary) levels. These exams mainly cover subjects of his or her choice. The student has specialized in these subjects and prepared for exams during the last 2 years of school. American students who have not had most of the final 2 years (ages 14 and 15) in Scottish school may find it difficult, but not impossible, to pass these exams and receive a Scottish Certificate of Education (SCE).

In Scotland, students wishing to attend a university will study another 1 or 2 years to prepare for a series of more difficult exams called "highers." Successful completion of these exams is required for entrance to all Scottish universities and are accepted by most universities in the rest of Britain. Scottish students wishing to enter universities may take a narrower series of "A" (advanced) level exams. These are the same kind of tests as those given in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and throughout the Commonwealth for students hoping to enter British universities. The "higher" exams are only given in Scotland.

Students older than 14 who arrive here may find it difficult to complete high school in a Scottish school unless they are willing to work hard. Nevertheless, American students have done very well in the local school system in the past. Entrance to private day school is by negotiation with headmasters.

The North Sea oil industry brought a large number of American families to Scotland in the 1970s, especially to the area around Aberdeen, 120 miles north of Edinburgh. Due largely to transition difficulties between American and Scottish systems of education, the American School of Aberdeen opened in 1972. It has an enrollment of 387 students, including military dependents from Edzell. It has two campuses and covers from primary grade through high school.

The American School of Edinburgh opened in September 1976 with 15 students. It now has 30-40 students at any one time, with about 30 teachers, the majority of whom are part time. The age of students ranges from 16-19 years old. It patterns itself on the American educational system, but does not have U.S. accreditation and operates mainly on a format of informal tutorials with only a few students in each class. It is, however, registered with the Scottish Education Department. Currently, no students from the U.S. attend. The school also administers standardized tests, such as the SAT for students interested in attending U.S. universities.

Special Educational Opportunities

There are 12 universities in Scotland. Three of these are in the Edinburgh metropolitan area—HeriotWatt, Napier, and Edinburgh. Edinburgh University is one of the best academic institutions in Britain.

Edinburgh University and the Lothian Regional Council offer excellent evening adult classes in a wide range of subjects including a good selection of languages. Classes are usually from October until May. Three foreign cultural offices—the French Institute, the Italian Institute, and the Danish Institute—offer language classes in conjunction with the University of Edinburgh. Classes in Scottish traditional dancing and other folk art are held regularly in Edinburgh by the Scottish Country Dance Society.

Sports

Many fine private and public golf courses are available. The climate allows golf year round. The immediate Edinburgh area has 28 courses. Temporary memberships are available in all but the most select clubs.

Edinburgh has a number of tennis clubs and good squash courts. Several indoor swimming pools are open to the general public at nominal fees. The Meadowbank Sports Center and the Royal Commonwealth Pool were built to Olympic standards to accommodate the 1970 and 1986 Commonwealth Games. You can purchase golf clubs, fishing tackle, and other sports items locally.

The cool climate limits outdoor swimming to only a short time in summer. A number of fine beaches within easy reach of the city are suitable for picnicking, sun bathing, and swimming.

Skiing is possible around Glencoe and at Aviemore in the Cairngorms. They can be reached by car in about 3 hours and by train in about 4. Special ski trains are available when snow conditions are good. Many ski lifts operate in that area. Equipment can be rented.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

Simple tourist accommodation is available in all cities and towns along main routes out of Edinburgh. Glasgow is only 1 hour away by train or car. A day trip to the Trossachs and to Loch Lomond is possible by car or tour bus. You can arrange trips with equal ease to the Borders. St. Andrews is interesting with its university and famous golf courses. It can be reached from Edinburgh during summer with ample time for lunch and a game of golf. Gleneagles, where the Scottish Open is played each year, has a world-famous (but expensive) hotel and four fine golf courses. Another pleasant weekend trip is to the area around Pitlochry, noted for its scenery and fishing. This could be coupled with a trip to Inverness and Loch Ness. A short trip to the north of Edinburgh presents a good view of the famous Firth of Forth Rail and Road Bridges. These are on the way to Dunfermline with its medieval abbey and home of Andrew Carnegie.

Many interesting castles, palaces, and homes are within a 1-day drive of Edinburgh. The price of gasoline is higher than in the U.S., but U.S. Government employees are reimbursed for the tax paid.

Entertainment

There is an active cultural life in Edinburgh with opera, orchestras, plays, top name artists, and exhibitions taking place throughout the year. The movie theaters show current U.S. films, and there is also a Film House showing international films.

During the Edinburgh International Festival you can see operas, leading ballet companies, symphony orchestra concerts of international caliber, and plays with outstanding casts. During the main Festival, the Fringe presents cabaret and late night musical and drama productions.

The International Film Festival features a number of first showings with leading performers present on opening night. There is also a Jazz Festival during this time in the summer.

Edinburgh boasts several excellent art museums. The Scottish National Library, Edinburgh Public Library, and two university libraries offer a wide selection of books, research materials, and an excellent music library.

Major hotels offer shows and dancing throughout the year. Other hotels and restaurants have more informal Friday and Saturday night dinner dances. During the tourist season, major hotels have regular Scottish nights. These are called Ceilidhs (pronounced "kaylee"), which include traditional Scottish dancing, singing, and music.

The city has many public houses or pubs. Some offer musical entertainment, jazz, and even country-western music. During the school year, the universities offer a wide variety of entertainment.

Social Activities

Social contact with other Americans is available through the American Women's Club of Edinburgh. A large U.S. community lives in the Aberdeen area, where there also is an American Women's Club.

The city has a reasonably active social life. Cocktail and small dinner parties are a way of life in winter. The English Speaking Union has a branch in Edinburgh which provides a focal point for association with local Scots. Also, Scottish country dance clubs teach regional dances and, at the same time, provide a means of social contact.

Birmingham

Birmingham lies in Warwickshire, central England, near the coal and iron deposits of the "black country." Now the second largest city in England, with a population of over 1 million, it is the chief center of hardware manufacturing and of the motor components industry. Birmingham was a market town trading in leather and wools when it was seized and burned by royalists in the civil wars. It revived at the advent of the industrial revolution, and the population grew with the expanding manufacture of metal products and guns. Birmingham's franchise came with the Reform Bill of 1832, and progressive city government has been the pattern since that time.

The city initiated a slum-clearing scheme in the 1870s, and was the first town with a municipal bank and water-supply service. After suffering heavy damage during World War II, Birmingham was extensively rebuilt. Architectural sights include the Town Hall, built in 1832-1834, and modeled after the Temple of Castor and Pollux in Rome; the Victoria Law Courts; the University of Birmingham in suburban Edgetaston; the 13th-century Church of St. Martin, which was rebuilt in 1873; the cathedrals; and some of the older markets.

Birmingham's more recent developments include the National Exhibition Centre, and the Aston Science Park, housing high-technology industries.

Culturally, Birmingham belies its reputation as a grimy industrial city—its library contains one of the world's finest Shakespearean collections, and its art museum is noted for its pre-Raphaelite holdings. There also is a museum of science and industry.

Glasgow

Glasgow is Scotland's largest city and principal port. Situated in Lanarkshire on the River Clyde, one of the world's chief commercial estuaries, it is a city of approximately 680,000 residents. Its many industrial companies include those for engineering, printing, chemicals, and aeronautical engines. In recent years, it also has developed as a conference site.

Glasgow was founded late in the sixth century by St. Kentigern Calso (also known as St. Mungo). It became an ecclesiastical center and seat of learning in the Middle Ages. The city grew as a port and commercial hub in the 18th and 19th centuries with the American cotton and tobacco trade. Perhaps because of its heavy concentration of industry, it is now blighted by some of the worst slums in Europe, although an urban renewal effort begun in the 1950s has had some ameliorating effect.

Glasgow's sights include St. Mungo's Cathedral (13th-century Gothic), the Institute of Fine Arts, the Burrell Collection Museum, the renowned University of Glasgow (founded in 1451), the University of Strathclyde (1964), and Glasgow Green, the oldest park in the city. The Scottish National Orchestra makes its home here, as do the Scottish Opera and the Scottish Ballet. In 1990 Glasgow was designated as a "European city of culture."

Liverpool

Liverpool, in Lancashire, near the mouth of the Mersey River, is England's major port for Atlantic commerce, and was once one of the great trading centers of the world. Colonized by Norsemen in the latter part of the eighth century, it received its first charter in 1207, and soon became a dispatch point for shipping men to and from Ireland, as evidenced by its now largely Irish population. Its first wet dock was completed in 1705; the city docks, on both sides of the river, today are over 38 miles long. Although known for its thriving industries, Liverpool has only recently recovered from the devastation and casualties suffered in the German bombing raids of 1940-1941. An economic downturn in the 1980s brought high unemployment to Liverpool. Recent business developments are attempting to make the city prosperous once more.

The city's outstanding building is undoubtedly the Cathedral Church of Christ, begun in 1903 but not completed until 1980. A Gothic-style structure, it is the largest church in the country and the fifth largest in the world. Among the many other important buildings are the classical St. George's Hall, Catholic Metropolitan Cathedral, Victoria Building of Liverpool University, and Philharmonic Hall. Liverpool had one of England's first public libraries, established in the mid-19th century; its Brown, Picton, and Hornby libraries now form the largest municipal central libraries in Europe.

Inhabitants of Liverpool (currently numbering 474,000) are known as "Liverpudlians." The city was once the home of the Beatles, the rock group which emerged in the early 1960s and dramatically influenced the world of modern music.

Leeds

Leeds, in the lower Aire valley of Yorkshire in northern England, is the informal "capital" of the nation's industrial district, serving as a junction of rail, water, and air transportation routes. Leeds has produced woolen goods since the 14th century, and currently is the center for wholesale trade in clothing. Other industries here include engineering and chemical firms, and manufacturers of locomotives, heavy machinery, farm implements, airplane parts, furniture, and leather goods.

Leeds was incorporated in 1626 and became a city in 1893. Its current population is 724,000.

Notable among the city's landmarks are the parish church of St. Peter's; 17th-century St. John's Church; the Cathedral of St. Anne; the nearby Cistercian house, Kirkstall Abbey, dating to 1152; Adel Church, a Norman structure; and the University of Leeds, founded in 1904. Another interesting building (acquired by Leeds in the 1920s) is Temple Newsam, the birthplace of Lord Darnley (1545-1567), second husband of Mary Queen of Scots and claimant to the English throne.

Manchester

Manchester, the leading textile city of England and the publishing and printing center of the north, is located in Lancashire on the Irwell River, 30 miles northeast of Liverpool. Its population of 431,000 is engaged in industry and commerce.

Known as Mancunium by the Romans, who occupied the area in A.D. 78, Manchester's earliest charter dates to 1301; its charter of incorporation was granted in 1838, and it became a city 15 years later. A center of the industrial revolution, it was the site of the first application of steam to machinery, and of the first English passenger railroad.

The Peterloo Massacre, which occurred in Manchester in 1819 when a cavalry charge on a peaceful demonstration killed more than 600 people, gave a significant boost to the growing reform movement of the 19th century. The "Manchester School," a group of economists advocating free trade, was active in the city at that time.

The world-famous liberal newspaper, The Manchester Guardian (now called The Guardian), was founded here in 1821. The city is also known as the birthplace of British statesman David Lloyd George.

Among Manchester's principal places of interest are the 17th-century Chetham Library; the Rylands Library; a 15th-century cathedral; and the university founded as Owens College in 1851 and which, since 1903, has been called Victoria University of Manchester. The city is the home of the Hallé Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Exchange Theatre, the Royal Northern College of Music, and several fine art galleries.

Cardiff

Cardiff, in Glamorganshire, is the capital city of Wales, the principality which forms England's western peninsula. It is one of the world's greatest coal-shipping ports, and its numerous other industries include iron and steel works, car component manufacturing, paper mills, and fishing. Cardiff Castle was built on the site of a Roman fort in 1090, and the parish church of St. John dates to the 13th century.

Cardiff's name is Caerdydd in Welsh, which is one of the Celtic languages. Welsh is spoken by about 20% of the population (in addition to English), and both official and voluntary measures have been adopted in the past quarter-century to further revive its use. Support for bilingual education is reflected in the increasing number of students learning Welsh as part of their school curricula. Radio and television programs in Welsh are broadcast regularly. Prince Charles, the heir to the British throne, spoke at length in the language during his investiture as prince of Wales in 1969.

Officially recognized as the capital of the principality, Cardiff is the chief urban center; the others are Swansea and Newport which, like Cardiff, are in the south.

There is a university here, the University of Wales; a National Folk Museum; the Cardiff College of Music and Drama; and a new conference and concert hall, St. David's. Cardiff has an approximate population of 300,000.

Much of Wales' cultural activity is centered in Cardiff, although other cities and towns also are active in professional activities in the fields of literature, music, and drama. The Welsh National Opera, formed in 1945 and based in Cardiff, has gained international repute.

Sports and recreation are popular here. Association football and rugby have wide appeal; the National Stadium at Cardiff Arms Park is one of Britain's most modern rugby structure.

OTHER CITIES

ABERDEEN, a stronghold of royalist sentiment in the religious wars of the 17th century, is Scotland's third largest city, with a population of 219,000, and the principal European center for offshore oil exploration. It is also an ancient university town and was the Scottish royal residence from the 12th to the 14th century.

ARMAGH is the religious center of Northern Ireland, and diocesan headquarters for both the Church of Ireland and the Roman Catholic Church. Many of its public buildings and Georgian townhouses are the work of Francis Johnston, who also left his mark on Dublin. Armagh, a leading intellectual center from the fifth through the ninth centuries, is today a quiet city of 15,000 residents.

BRISTOL is the capital of England's west country, and famous for the prominent role it played in American colonization. It was from Bristol that John and Sebastian Cabot sailed to America in 1497. The city also was the birthplace of William Penn. Bristol, now a city of 399,000, was a royal borough before the Norman Conquest. It is an important shipping center, known for its Clifton Suspension Bridge, a 702-foot span over the Avon River. The University of Bristol was founded in 1909.

COVENTRY is a manufacturing city in central England, located 18 miles southeast of Birmingham, near the Avon River. Lady Godiva (1010-1067) made her legendary ride through the streets here. With her husband, the Earl of Mercia, she founded a monastery in the mid-11th century that brought wealth and trade to the city. Bicycle manufacture began in Coventry in 1868; it developed into a motor vehicle industry that is still an important employer. Other industries include engineering and machine-tool companies. The German Luftwaffe destroyed most of downtown Coventry in World War II air raids; rebuilding began immediately after the war. St. Michael's Cathedral, probably the city's most famous example of reconstruction, was designed by Sir Basil Spence. The old spire and nave have been left standing, next to the new cathedral. An important education center, Coventry is the site of the University of Warwick and Lanchester Polytechnic, among other institutions. The city's population is an estimated 303,000.

DOVER, the channel port on the Strait of Dover in southeastern England, was chief of the ancient Cinque Ports, which also included Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich. Important since Roman times, it has been a stronghold in many eras of British history. During World War II, Dover was battered continually by German gunfire. Its current population is approximately 107,000.

LONDONDERRY, Ulster's well-preserved ancient city, dates from the year 546. It was subjected to attack many times during its tumultuous history, and withstood a 105-day siege by the forces of James II in 1688-89. The city, formerly called Derry, was a U.S. Navy base in World War II. It sits on a hill overlooking the Foyle estuary, about 95 miles northwest of Belfast and has a population of approximately 47,000.

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, in Northumberland, is an important trade and coal-shipping center on the River Tyne. It stands on the site of the Roman military encampment of Pons Aelii, on Hadrian's Wall. Traces of the town walls and towers, attributed to Edward I (1271-1307), still stand. King's College, located in this city of 284,000, is affiliated with the University of Durham. The people of Newcastle-upon-Tyne are referred to as "Geordies"—some say because of the support given to George I and George II in the 18th century, but more probably a nickname derived from the "geordie" safety lamp designed for local miners by George Stephenson.

NEWRY (in Irish, An Tlúr) is the seat of Newry and Mourne District, in Northern Ireland. It lies on the River Clanrye, near Carlingford Lough, about 30 miles southwest of Belfast. The first Protestant church in Ireland, St. Patrick's (1578), was built here. According to legend, St. Patrick planted the original yew tree—symbol of immortality—in the region. Newry grew around a Cistercian abbey begun by St. Malachy (1094-1148) about 1144. It was frequently attacked from the 13th through the 17th centuries, because of its vulnerable position between the hills. Industries in Newry include linen and cotton spinning and weaving, waterproof clothing manufacture, and granite quarrying. Newry's population is close to 29,000.

NOTTINGHAM, with an estimated population of 282,000, is one of England's primary route centers. Situated about 100 miles northwest of London, it is also a major cultural hub of the central region. Two prominent theaters here include the Theatre Royal (1865), and the Playhouse (1963). The poet Byron (1788-1824), and the writer D.H. Lawrence (1885-1930) are among the literary figures associated with the city. The legend of Robin Hood is commemorated in Nottingham by a statue on Castle Green. Industries in Nottingham include pharmaceutical, tobacco, and bicycle manufacturing. Most employment is in the service sector. The Anglo-Saxons settled the region in the sixth century, naming it Snotingaham, meaning the "ham," or village, of Snot's people. The site of three parliaments between 1330 and 1337, it was also in Nottingham that Charles I (1660-1649) raised his standard in 1642, starting the English civil war.

PLYMOUTH houses the British Navy's important Davenport Dockyard. With some 256,000 residents the city is situated 190 miles southwest of London, near Plymouth Sound. Long a vital port city, Plymouth was the embarkation point for the fleet that devastated the Spanish Armada in 1588. Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618) sailed from here to colonize Virginia. The dockyards, dating from 1690, provide the Royal Navy with barracks, an engineering college, and a hospital. Plymouth withstood extensive damage in World War II; reconstruction was completed by 1962. Today, the city boasts noted commercial, shopping, and civic centers.

PORTSMOUTH, the birthplace of Charles Dickens, is situated in Hampshire, southern England. It is an important naval base whose dockyards were established in 1494, and also is a noted seaside resort. In 1940, the city suffered extensive German bombing. George Meredith (1828-1909), English writer and critic, is another of Portsmouth's famous sons. Its current population is 189,000.

ST. ANDREWS is a noted North Sea golfing resort town in the Fife region of eastern Scotland. It is the place where Scottish kings were crowned, and whose renowned university is the oldest in Scotland (1411). St. Andrews was Scotland's ecclesiastical capital until the Reformation. Its population is about 16,000.

SHEFFIELD is the center of England's cutlery industry, and is located 68 miles northeast of Birmingham in the South Yorkshire region. This industrial city of some 530,000 residents also manufactures steel, chemicals, and paints. Cutlery production began here in the early 18th century, with the steel industry starting about one hundred years later. The University of Sheffield dates to 1905.

SOUTHAMPTON, a chief shipping center for passenger and merchant vessels, lies on an estuary of the Test River in the southern English county of Hampshire. Roman and Saxon settlements once flourished on the site of the city. In 1620, the Pilgrims embarked from Southampton on their voyage to America; a Mayflower Memorial is erected within the city walls. The current population is roughly 212,000.

SWANSEA (in Welsh, Abertawe), located on Bristol Channel, is about 30 miles northwest of Cardiff, Wales. This city of 189,000 residents is the birthplace of the poet Dylan Thomas (1914-1953), who saluted the area in his writings. Swansea grew from a market town to an industrial center in the early 1700s; the economy still includes industries such as nearby lead/zinc and nickel works. Oil refining was introduced here in 1921. The city attracts customers from all of southwest Wales to its shopping and service facilities. Tourists come to Swansea for its beaches along Swansea Bay and the Gower Coast.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

The islands comprising the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (U.K.) lie off the northwest coast of the European Continent. The English Channel, the Straits of Dover, and the North Sea separate the islands from the Continent. At the closest point, they are only 17.8 miles from the French coast. The capital city of London is in the southeast and lies on nearly the same latitude as Winnipeg, Canada. The U.K. has a total land area of 94,217 square miles, roughly the size of Oregon.

The British Isles have a complex geology with a rich variety of scenery and impressive contrasts in topography. Highland Britain contains the principal mountain ranges, which vary from 4,000 to 5,000 feet and occupy most of the north and west of the country. Lowland Britain, almost entirely composed of low, rolling hills and flatlands, lies to the southeast.

Prevailing southwesterly winds make Britain's climate temperate and equable year round. Average daily temperatures are 40°F in winter and 60°F in summer. Extreme temperatures are rare, but changeable weather patterns cause wide temperature ranges on any given day. Humidity in summer ranges from 50 to 80%. Average annual rainfall is 30-50 inches, usually distributed evenly throughout the year. Persistent cloud cover limits sunshine to an average of about 6-7 hours a day in summer and 1-2 hours a day in winter.

Population

The estimated population of the U.K. in 2000 was 59.8 million. In addition to the ethnic groups indigenous to the British Isles, the past few decades have seen the arrival of large numbers of Indians, Pakistanis, and West Indians. Britain's population density is about 246 persons a square kilometer, with England being the most densely populated at 383 persons a square kilometer and Scotland the least populated at 65 persons a square kilometer. Britain's population is largely urban and suburban.

Britain is a cultural melting pot. In its early history, Britain was subjected to many invasions and migrations from Scandinavia and the Continent. The Romans occupied Britain for several centuries. The Normans, the last of a long succession of invaders, conquered England in 1066. Under the Normans, the pre-Celtic, Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse influences were blended into the Briton of today.

Celtic languages still persist in Northern Ireland and Wales, and, to a lesser degree, in Scotland. But, English, derived from Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French, has long been the predominant language.

Religious freedom is guaranteed in the U.K. There are two official state churches: the Church of England and the (Presbyterian) Church of Scotland. The Church of England, established during the 16th-century Reformation, is the major religious denomination. Other major denominations include Baptist, Buddhist, Hindu, Jewish, Methodist, Moslem, Roman Catholic, Sikh, and Unitarian.

Public Institutions

The U.K. is a Parliamentary state with a constitutional monarchy. The state's origins and traditions are found in each of its four component parts: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. England was first united under a Saxon king in the ninth century. Wales eventually became part of that kingdom, and Ireland joined it before the end of the 13th century. In 1603, James I of England, who also ruled as James VI of Scotland, united the English and Scottish dynasties. In 1707, the Treaty for the Union of England and Scotland provided that the two countries "should be forever united into one kingdom." One Parliament (the Parliament of Great Britain) served as the supreme authority in both countries. In 1801, the Act for the Union of Great Britain and Ireland (joining the Irish Parliament with the Parliament of Great Britain) established the present-day U.K. In 1922, however, the 26 counties of southern Ireland became a self-governing, independent entity—The Republic of Ireland, or Eire. Meanwhile, the Government of Ireland Act in 1920 enacted a Constitution for Northern Ireland that preserved the supreme authority of the U.K. Parliament and provided Northern Ireland with limited authority to deal with domestic " transferred " affairs. These arrangements remained in force until 1972 when, following several years of political instability and violence in Northern Ireland, a period of direct rule was introduced.

In July 1974, the Northern Ireland Act was introduced. It provides that the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland is to be responsible to the U.K. Parliament for delegated services. Responsibility for the administration of Northern Ireland departments rests temporarily with Ministers in the Northern Ireland Office. Although one state, the U.K. has adopted flexible methods of government. England, Wales, and Scotland have different legal, judicial, and educational systems. For most domestic matters they have different government departments. In Scotland, these departments are headquartered in Edinburgh and grouped under the Secretary of State for Scotland, a member of the British Cabinet. To a large degree, the administration of Welsh affairs is delegated to the Welsh Office under the Secretary of State for Wales, who also holds Cabinet rank.

The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man (which are Crown dependencies and not part of the U.K.) have their own legislative assemblies, systems of local administration and law, and courts. Nonetheless, they maintain a special relationship with the U.K. because of their proximity and historical connections with the Crown. The U.K. Government is responsible for their defense and international relations.

The U.K. Constitution is formed by statute, by common law, and by precepts and practices known as conventions. These have never been codified and are not directly enforceable in a court of law but have a binding force as rules of the Constitution. The Constitution is not contained in any document and can be altered by an Act of Parliament or by general agreement to vary, abolish, or create a convention. Therefore, it can readily adapt to changing political conditions and ideas.

The organs of Government established by the U.K. Constitution are readily distinguishable, but their functions often intermingle and overlap. They are:

The Legislature, which comprises the Queen and Parliament (the Houses of Lords and Commons);

The Executive, which includes the Cabinet and other Ministers of the Crown who are responsible for initiating and directing national policy; government departments, which are responsible for administration at the national level; local authorities, who administer services at the local level; and public corporations that may be responsible for nationalized industries and services; and

The Judiciary, which determines common law and interprets statutes. It is independent of both the Legislature and the Executive.

Arts, Science, and Education

Artistic and cultural activity in Britain ranges from the highest professional standards to a variety of amateur performances and events. The arts also represent a major sector of economic activity, contributing an estimated $9 million a year to Britain's balance of payments.

Public and private art galleries offer a tremendous selection of Old World masters and contemporary artists. Festivals, such as the Edinburgh International Festival, attract world attention and participation. Devotion to the arts is rooted in the U.K.'s rich cultural heritage. This devotion has led to maintenance of many museums, concert halls, and theaters that provide a wide variety of classical and popular works.

In the last four decades, popular interest in the arts has increased steadily. This development is reflected in the profusion of amateur dramatic and musical societies, the growth in book and record sales, and the large attendance figures at major art exhibitions.

Scientific and technological innovation is aggressively pursued by various government departments, universities, learned societies (six of world renown), professional institutions, public and private councils, industry, and international scientific exchanges.

The government spends up to 2.7 billion pounds a year on civil research and development, distributing these moneys through five research councils and several universities. A long-term government goal is to encourage private industry to support more research, particularly in projects nearly ready for commercial use. Public corporations, independent trusts, and foundations and learned societies also support research projects.

Parents in Britain are required by law to see that their children receive efficient, full-time education, at school or elsewhere, between the ages of 5 and 16. Almost 93% attend public schools.

The higher education system in the U.K. comprises 83 universities. These include the Open Universities that were established to provide higher education for students with or without formal qualifications for obtaining a university degree. Higher education grew rapidly in the 1970s. Today, one in four young people begins university and college education.

Commerce and Industry

Although small in land area and accounting for just over 1% of the world's population, the United Kingdom has the fourth largest economy in the industrialized world and serves as one of the world's leading trading partners. About 60% of Britain's trade is with other member countries of the European Union (EU), to which the U.K. has belonged since 1973. Britain's twoway trade in goods and services with the U.S. amounted to $82.5 billion in 1993. The United States and the U.K. are also the largest foreign investors in each other's country. By the end of 2000, the U.S. had invested more than $230 billion in the U.K.

In the U.K., production is heavily oriented toward the service sectors, just as in the U.S. It can be broadly subdivided as follows: primary (consisting of agriculture and energy), 9%; secondary (manufacturing and construction), 30%; and tertiary (service industries, including government), 61%. Energy had been the fastest growing sector in the economy as the North Sea oil-fields were under development. However, North Sea production has about peaked. Manufacturing, long in decline, has revived as economic growth has carried firms back into profitability. Nevertheless, manufacturing is clearly secondary to the expanding service industries, such as catering, hotels, and financial services.

Housing has also become increasingly important in the U.K., as more people have sought to purchase their own homes. Today, over 70% of British houses are owner occupied, while 25% are rented from the government.

Personal incomes in Britain have improved dramatically in recent years, although they still lag behind the U.S., Japan, and some other EU countries. Before the EU expanded from 12 to 15 members, based on equivalent purchasing power per capita, the living standards in the U.K. ranked seventh.

Transportation

Local

The U.K. offers comprehensive, modern rail, air, and sea transportation. Inland travel is quick and efficient by public and private transportation systems. British Rail passenger services are concentrated on the high-speed, intercity lines, and commuter service around large cities, especially London and the southeast. Motorail services carry both passengers and cars.

Subway service in London is fast and frequent but closes at midnight and is subject to delay, with even a little snow. The present system is comprehensive, but stretched to near its capacity. It offers easy transfer to British Rail and buses.

All major urban and suburban areas have bus service. Intracity buses are painted red; long-distance lines are green. Bus route maps are furnished free by government-operated bus lines. Carrier-owned buses serve major air and sea terminals. Minibuses service some suburban areas.

Taxis cruise the streets of all major cities in large numbers. They are easy to find, except in rush hour or in the rain. Taxis are metered and charge a flat rate per mile; surcharges are paid for evening, weekend, and local holiday travel and for extra passengers. Many cab companies have telephone pickup services. Intracity trips average 5-9 pounds (tip is optional). Taxis may be found in taxi ranks (stands) in front of large hotels, or may be flagged down on the street when the yellow rooftop light is on.

In London, black London cabs pick up passengers on the streets, from taxi ranks, or can be called by phone. They are licensed, and, as each driver must pass an extensive test on London streets and important locations, they are very reliable. London cabs are metered. Unlicensed "minicabs" are also available in London, but they must be booked and are not allowed to "cruise" for fares on the streets. They are unmetered and passengers should agree to a charge before departure. Minicabs are usually less expensive than black cabs.

Belfast: Belfast offers travel by bus, train, and taxi. Public transportation is not too busy during rush hour, and the system operates regularly. Intracity transportation provides adequate, inexpensive service. The Ulsterbus service covers all Northern Ireland outside Belfast, and their express coaches also serve the Irish Republic.

Edinburgh: Scotland has an excellent network of roads and motor-ways for driving between the cities or out into the countryside. In some remote areas of the Highlands only single-lane roads exist. They can be extremely hazardous and virtually impassable during the winter months. Caution is necessary in driving through areas where grazing sheep may attempt to cross the road. Most people find a car desirable for sight-seeing, shopping, and business. But in the city centers, due to heavy traffic and parking problems, it is often desirable to use public transportation.

Both high-grade and low-grade petrol (gas) can be purchased at numerous filling stations. Unleaded petrol is becoming more readily available throughout Scotland in the larger cities and towns. Many gas stations can be closed on Sundays.

Regional

London is a hub of international travel, with air and sea routes to nearly all corners of the globe. Britain is served by ferry and hovercraft which link it to the Continent's road and rail system. The Channel Tunnel (Chunnel) officially opened in May 1994 and began full transportation service of passengers, cars, and commercial lorries via high-speed rail to France during 1995.

Edinburgh: Edinburgh has frequent airline, rail, and bus services to other parts of Scotland and the U.K. Regular airline shuttle service from Edinburgh's Turnhouse Airport to Heathrow and Gatwick Airports in London allows the traveler to make connecting flights to nearly any part of the world. Daily flights are scheduled from Turnhouse direct to Dublin and the Continent. Bus service to major British cities is frequent, reasonably fast, and inexpensive. Trains provide fast, more comfortable service, and include convenient night-sleeper service between Edinburgh and London.

Hovercraft and other car and passenger ferries operate regularly to and from the European Continent.

Belfast: Belfast has good bus and train service to most parts of Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic. There is convenient ferry service to Stranraer in Scotland as well as ferries to the Isle of Man and to Liverpool. Belfast has two airports. The Belfast International Airport (Aldergrove—18 miles from the center of Belfast) has numerous daily London-Belfast flights, and regular service to other British and international destinations. The Belfast Harbor Airport (4 miles from city center) has services to London, other airports in Great Britain, and some flights to other cities in Europe.

Communications

Telephone and Telegraph

A direct-dial telephone system serves London and most of the U.K. The U.S. and Western Europe can be reached by direct dialing. Charges for home telephones and domestic and international calls are significantly more expensive than in the U.S.

Internal and international telegraph service is available and efficient.

Belfast local-and long-distance telephone service is good. Telegraph is available through several commercial companies. Edinburgh telephone and telegraph services are excellent. Telephone service is direct dial. It links Edinburgh to all cities in the U.K., most of Western Europe, and to the U.S.

Radio and TV

Television is broadcast through the state-owned British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)—channels 1 and 2—and the commercially financed Independent Television Network (ITN)—channels 3 and 4. A fifth channel is in the discussion stages. Both BBC and ITN operate nationwide, with regional variations. All four channels operate in the UHF range.

Network programming is standard throughout the country in both content and timing. Considerable program flexibility is provided to allow for locally produced shows and news reports between network programs.

Cable and/or satellite TV are also available in many parts of London. There are many stations to choose from; they are on the air 24 hours daily and include 3 movie channels, 3 sports channels, CNN, SKY, and several family-and children-oriented channels.

Radio programming on AM, FM, and SW bands is excellent. BBC radio provides listeners with five national channels, including a new, 24-hour news channel. Broadcasts present all types of music, news, commentary, adult education programs, and works of artistic and intellectual interest. Independent commercial stations provide general entertainment and news. Broadcasts from Europe can also be received clearly. Reception of the Armed Forces Network broadcasts on radio and TV is possible.

Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals

The British press caters to a wide variety of interests and political views. Ten morning papers—The Times, Financial Times, Guardian, Daily Mirror, Daily Mail, Daily Express, Sun, Daily Star, Daily Telegraph, and Independent—are national. The total average daily circulation exceeds 2 million. Eight national Sunday papers—Sunday Times, Mail on Sunday, News of the World, The Observer, The Sunday People, Sunday Express, Sunday Mirror, and The Sunday Telegraph—have a total average weekly circulation of more than 3 million copies.

The news media is served by three large British news agencies—Reuters, the Press Association, and the Exchange Telegraph Company. UPI and AP have affiliates in London, as do most major U.S. newspapers. Many suburban daily papers contain news of local interest.

Britain has more than 4,500 periodicals and several prominent journals of opinion. Literary and political journals and those specializing in international and commonwealth affairs are published monthly or quarterly.

Publication of trade, technical, business, scientific, and professional journals has become a major aspect of the British publishing industry. These journals cover hundreds of subjects, many in great depth. In addition to circulating in Britain, these publications enjoy international distribution. They are an important medium for selling British goods overseas.

Periodicals published in England circulate throughout the U.K. Scotland has three monthly illustrated periodicals (Scottish Field, Scotland's Magazine, Scot's Magazine), a weekly paper devoted to farming interests (Scottish Farmer), several literary journals (the most famous is probably Blackwood's), and many popular magazines. In Northern Ireland, weekly, monthly, and quarterly publications cover farming, the linen industry, building, motoring, politics, and social work.

European editions of Time, Newsweek, and the International Herald Tribune are readily available at newsstands and book-shops. A large number of bookshops in London carry American magazines such as Fortune, Forbes, Saturday Review, Harper's Bazaar, and the New Yorker.

Britain is served by a complete network of public libraries. About half the libraries lend a variety of phonograph records, and a growing number are adding loan collections of artworks, either original or reproduction. Nearly all libraries have children's departments and most also act as centers for film showings, adult education classes, lectures, exhibitions, drama groups, recitals, and children's story hours. They are a very useful resource for information on the neighborhood they serve.

Books of all types are available in bookshops and department stores.

Health and Medicine

Medical Facilities

The U.K. has excellent medical facilities in all major cities. London, Belfast, and Edinburgh have medical training centers offering the full range of services. All U.K. residents are entitled to medical care under the National Health Service (NHS). Medical practitioners are allowed to maintain private (fee-for-service) practices in addition to NHS practices, and many do so. A relationship may be established with a local physician as a private patient in much the same manner as in the U.S. Many British physicians accept payment under U.S. health insurance plans.

Belfast offers a high standard of medical care, including an emergency "cardiac ambulance" staffed by coronary specialists. Specialists are available at the Royal Victoria Hospital, which is the major teaching facility of Queen's University Medical School, the City Hospital, the Ulster Clinic (mainly private care), and smaller hospitals scattered across Northern Ireland.

Edinburgh has long been famous for its medical schools, and the quality of local facilities is uniformly excellent.

Community Health

Living conditions in the U.K. are generally excellent; no major health hazards exist. Community sanitation standards are high and community environmental services are superior. Colds and other upper respiratory infections are common, but no more so than in comparable climates in the U.S.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Passage, Customs & Duties

A passport is required. Tourists are not obliged to obtain a visa for stays of up to six months in the United Kingdom or to enter Gibraltar. Those wishing to remain longer than one month in Gibraltar should regularize their stay with Gibraltar immigration authorities.

Further information on entry requirements may be obtained from the British Embassy at 3100 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008; tel.: (202) 588-7800. Inquiries may also be directed to British Consulates in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco. The web site of the British Embassy in the United States is http://www.britainusa.com/consular/embassy/embassy.asp.

British customs authorities may strictly enforce regulations regarding the import or export of certain items, including material deemed likely to incite racial hatred, firearms and personal defense items such as mace or knives. It is advisable to contact the British Embassy in Washington or one of the United Kingdom's consulates in the U.S. for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Air travelers to and from the United Kingdom should be aware that penalties against alcohol-related and other in-flight crimes ("air rage") are stiff and are being enforced with prison sentences.

Americans living in or visiting the United Kingdom may register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in London, or at the U.S. Consulates General in Edinburgh or Belfast and obtain updated information on travel and security within the United Kingdom.

The U.S. Embassy is located at 24 Grosvenor Square, London W1A 1AE; Telephone: in country 0207-499-9000, from the U.S. 011-44-207-499-9000 (24 hours); Consular Section fax: in country 0207-495-5012; from the U.S. 011-44-207-495-5012. The embassy web site is http://www.usembassy.org.uk.

The U.S. Consulate General in Edinburgh, Scotland, is located at 3 Regent Terrace, Edinburgh EH7 5BW; Telephone: in country 0131-556-8315, from the U.S. 011-44-131-556-8315. After hours: in country 0131-260-6495, from the U.S. 011-44-131-260-6495. Fax: in country 0131-557-6023; from the U.S. 011-44-131-557-6023. The web site is http://www.usembassy.org.uk/scotland.

The U.S. Consulate General in Belfast, Northern Ireland, is located at 14 Queen Street, Belfast BT1 6EQ; Telephone: in country 01232-328-239; from the U.S. 011-44-1232-328-239. After hours: in country 01232-241-279, from the U.S. 011-44-1232-661-629. Fax: in country 01232-248-482, from the U.S. 011-44-1232-248-482.

There is no U.S. consular representation in Gibraltar. Citizen services questions should be directed to the U.S. Embassy in London. Passport questions can be directed to the U.S. Embassy in Madrid, located at Serrano 75/Madrid, Spain; telephone (34)(91) 587-2200, and fax (34)(91) 587-2303.

Pets

There is a concerted effort on the part of the U.K. Government to prevent the entry of rabies into the U.K. All dogs, cats, and other mammals entering Britain must undergo 6 calendar months' quarantine in government-approved kennels. No exceptions are made to this rule. If you desire to import a pet, write 6-10 weeks before departure to:

Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Food
Hook Rise South
Tolworth
Surbiton, Surrey KT6 7HF

Application forms will be sent by return mail.

Currency, Banking and Weights and Measures

The pound is divided into 100 pence (pennies). All transactions are made by using coins in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 pence, and one pound, and bills in denominations of 5, 10, 20, and 50 pounds.

The British pound is on a floating rate of exchange against the U.S. dollar. It currently falls in the range of £.684=__BODY__.00 (May 2002).

The British use the avoirdupois weight system. Most items are measured in ounces and pounds. Human weight, however, is expressed in stones (1 stone= 14 lbs.). Many food items are imported from other EU countries, so most grocery stores mark items in both the metric and the avoirdupois systems. The imperial gallon is one-fifth larger than the American gallon. Road distance and speed are measured in miles, not in kilometers.

No monetary controls are imposed for importation or exportation of British or foreign currencies.

Travelers checks are widely accepted throughout Great Britain. Credit cards are widely used in Great Britain and are readily available from several sources. Most large stores and restaurants accept major credit cards.

U.S. ATM bank cards connected to major systems, such as Plus or Cirrus, are accepted by U.K. bank cash machines for pounds at a favorable exchange rate.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

England & Wales

Jan. 1… New Year's Day

Mar. 1…St. David's Day (Wales)

Mar/Apr.…Good Friday^*

Mar/Apr.…Easter^*

Mar/Apr.…Easter Monday^*

Apr. 1… April Fool's Day

Apr. 21… Queen's Birthday

Apr. 23… St. George's Day (England)

May (1st Monday)…May Day^*

May (4th Monday)… Spring Bank Holiday^*

Aug.(4th Monday)… Summer Bank Holiday^*

Oct. 31…Halloween

Nov. 5… Guy Fawkes Day

Nov. (Sun closest to Nov. 11)… Remembrance Day^*

Nov. 11…Armistice Day

Dec. 25…Christmas Day

Dec. 26…Boxing Day

Northern Ireland

Jan. 1…New Year's Day

Mar. 17…St. Patrick's Day

Mar/Apr.…Good Friday^*

Mar/Apr.…Easter^*

Mar/Apr.…Easter Monday^*

Mar/Apr.…Easter Tuesday^*

May (1st Monday)…May Day^*

May (4th Monday)…Spring Bank Holiday

July (2nd Friday)…Orangemen's Day

Aug. (4th Monday)…Summer Bank Holiday

Oct. 31…Halloween

Nov.(Sun closest to Nov. 11)… Remembrance Day^*

Nov. 11…Armistice Day

Dec. 25…Christmas Day

Dec. 26…Boxing Day Scotland

Jan. 1… New Year's Day

Jan. 2…Bank Holiday

Jan. 25…Burn's Night (birth of Robert Burns)

Mar/Apr.…Good Friday^*

Mar/Apr.…Easter^*

Mar/Apr.…Easter Monday^*

May (1st Monday)…May Day^*

May (3rd Monday)…Victoria Day^*

Aug. (1st Monday)…Summer Bank^* Holiday

Sept. (3rd Monday)…Autumn Holiday^*

Nov. (Sun closest to Nov. 11)… Remembrance Day^*

Nov. 11…Armistice Day

Nov. 30…St. Andrew's Day

Dec. 25…Christmas

Dec. 26 …Boxing Day

^*variable

RECOMMENDED READING

These titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country. The Department of State does not endorse unofficial publications.

Great Britain

Arnold, Eve. The Great British. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991.

Barnett, Correlli. The Collapse of British Power. Sutton: 1984

Birnbaum, Stephen. Birnbaum's Great Britain. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1991.

Britain 1995: An Official Handbook. Compiled by H.M. Central Office of Information. H.M. Stationery Office. (Published annually).

Cannon, John, and Ralph Griffiths. The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Monarchy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Churchill, Winston. A History of the English Speaking Peoples. Cassell: 1967.

Fodor's Great Britain: England, Scotland, and Wales. New York: David McKay, latest edition.

Gamble, Andrew. Britain in Decline. Macmillan: 1985

Grote, David. British English for American Readers: A Dictionary of the Language, Customs, and Places of British Life and Literature. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992.

Halsey, A.H., ed. Changes in British Society. Oxford: 1981.

Kamm, Anthony. Britain and Her People. Avenal, NJ: Outlet Books, 1990.

Laing, Lloyd, and Jennifer Laing. Celtic Britain and Ireland, A.D. 200-800: The Myth of the Dark Ages. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990.

Louis and Bul, ed. The Special Relationship. Oxford: 1986.

Michelin Guide to Great Britain and Ireland. Compiled by the Michelin Tire Co., Ltd. (published annually)

Moss, Norman. A British/American Dictionary. Hutchinson: 1994.

Ousby, Ian. The Englishman's England: Taste, Travel, and the Rise of Tourism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Sampson, Anthony. The Changing

Anatomy of Britain. Hodder: 1993.

Young, Hugo. One of Us : Macmillan: 1989.

England

England and Wales 1992. New York: Berlitz, 1992.

Fritze, Ronald H., ed. Historical Dictionary of Tudor England: 1485-1603. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1991.

Quincy, Anthony. The English Country Town. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1987.

Rossiter, S. Blue Guide—England. E. Benn Ltd.: 1980

Ryder, J. and H. Silver. Modern English Society. Methuen: 1985.

Northern Ireland

Darby, John, ed. Northern Ireland: The Background to the Conflict. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987.

Johnstone, Robert. Belfast: Portraits of a City. North Pomfret, VT: Trafalgar Square, 1991.

Meyer, Caroline. Voices of Northern Ireland: Growing Up in a Troubled Land. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanivich, 1992.

Ulster Year Book, Government of Northern Ireland. H.M. Stationery office. (published annually)

Wallace, Martin. British Government in Northern Ireland—From Devolution to Direct Role. David and Charles: 1982.

Scotland

Fodor's Scotland. New York: David McKay, latest edition.

Galbraith, John Kenneth. The Scotch. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1985.

MacDonald, Angus, and Patricia MacDonald. The Highlands and Islands of Scotland. New York: Rizzoli International, 1991.

Mackie, J. D. A History of Scotland. Penguin: 1978.

MacSwean, Ann, and Mick Sharp. Prehistoric Scotland. New York: New Amsterdam Books, 1990.

Mitchison, Rosalind. A History of Scotland. Methuen and Co.: 1982.

Prebble, John. The Lion in the North. Seckler and Warburg: 1971.

Simpson, W. Douglas. The Ancient Stones of Scotland. Hale: 1968.

Turncock, David. The New Scotland. David and Charles Ltd: 1979.

Wales

England and Wales 1992 Travellers Guide. New York: Berlitz, 1992.

Morris, Jan. The Matter of Wales: Epic Views of a Small Country. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.

Thomas, Dylan. A Child's Christmas in Wales. New York: New Directions, 1969.