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APPENDIX A

  1. Access to Health Care
  2. Activity Limitation
  3. Adolescent Birth Rate
  4. Alcohol Use
  5. Birth Rates for Unmarried Women
  6. Child Poverty
  7. Childhood Immunizations
  8. Cigarette Smoking
  9. Difficulty Speaking English
  10. Early Childhood Care and Education
  11. Family Reading
  12. Family Structure and Children's Living Arrangements
  13. Food Security
  14. General Health Status
  15. Healthy Eating Index
  16. Illicit Drug Use
  17. Income Distribution
  18. Mathematics Achievement
  19. Mortality Rate for Children Ages 1 to 4
  20. Mortality Rate for Children Ages 15 to 19
  21. Number of Children under Age 18 in the United States
  22. Percentage of Beginning Kindergartners with Selected Knowledge and Skills by Mother's Education
  23. Percentage of Children Ages 2 to 18 by Age and Diet Quality as Measured by the Healthy Eating Index
  24. Percentage of Children Ages 2 to 18 by Age, Poverty Status, and Diet Quality as Measured by the Healthy Eating Index
  25. Percentage of Children by Type of Care Arrangement for Children from Birth through 3rd Grade
  26. Percentage of Children under Age 18 Living in Areas That Do Not Meet at Least One of the Primary National Ambient Air Quality Standards
  27. Percentage of Children under Age 18 Living in Various Family Arrangements
  28. Percentage of Households with Children under Age 18 That Report Housing Problems
  29. Percentage of Low-Birthweight Births
  30. Percentage of 6th through 12th-grade Students Who Participated in Volunteer Activiti
  31. Racial and Ethnic Composition
  32. Reading Achievement
  33. Serious Violent Juvenile Crime Rate
  34. Youth Neither Enrolled in School Nor Working
  35. Youth Victims of Serious Violent Crime

TABLE 1
Access to Health Care: Percentage of Children Under Age 18 Covered by Health Insurancea by Type of Health Insurance, Age, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1987-1998
Characteristic 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
All health insurance
Total 87 87 87 87 87 87 86 86 86 85 85 85
Age
Ages 0-5 88 87 87 89 89 89 88 86 87 86 86 84
Ages 6-11 87 87 87 87 88 88 87 87 87 85 86 85
Ages 12-17 86 86 86 85 85 85 83 85 86 84 83 84
Race and Hispanic origin
White, non-Hispanic 90 90 90 90 90 90 89 89 90 89 89 89
Black 83 84 84 85 85 86 84 83 85 81 81 80
Hispanicb 72 71 70 72 73 75 74 72 73 71 71 70
Private health insurance
Total 74 74 74 71 70 69 67 66 66 66 67 68
Age
Ages 0-5 72 71 71 68 66 65 63 60 60 62 63 64
Ages 6-11 74 74 75 73 71 71 70 67 67 67 68 68
Ages 12-17 75 76 76 73 72 71 69 70 71 70 70 65
Race and Hispanic origin
White, non-Hispanic 83 83 83 81 80 80 78 77 78 78 78 79
Black 49 50 52 49 45 46 46 43 44 45 48 47
Hispanicb 48 48 48 45 43 42 42 38 38 40 42 43
Government health insurancec
Total 19 19 19 22 24 25 27 26 26 25 23 23
Age
Ages 0-5 22 23 24 28 30 33 35 33 33 31 29 27
Ages 6-11 19 18 18 20 22 23 25 25 26 25 23 23
Ages 12-17 16 16 15 18 19 19 20 20 21 19 19 19
Race and Hispanic origin
White, non-Hispanic 12 13 13 15 16 17 19 18 18 18 17 16
Black 42 42 41 45 48 49 50 48 49 45 40 42
Hispanicb 28 27 27 32 37 38 41 38 39 35 34 31
aChildren are considered to be covered by health insurance if they had public or private coverage at any time during the year. Some children are covered by bothtypes of insurance; hence, the sum of public and private is greater than the total.
bPersons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
cGovernment health insurance for children consists mostly of Medicaid, but also includes Medicare, SCHIP (the State Children's Health Insurance Program), and CHAMPUS (Civilian Health and Medical Program of the Uniformed Services). CHAMPUS is being replaced by tricar
SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, unpublished tables based on analyses from the March Current Population Survey.

TABLE 2
Activity Limitation: Percentage of Children Under Age 18 with Any Limitation in Activity Resulting from Chronic Conditionsa by Age, Gender, Poverty Status, Race, and Hispanic Origin, Selected Years 1984-1997
Characteristic 1984 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997b
Children ages 0-17
Total 5.0 4.9 5.8 6.1 6.6 6.7 6.0 6.1 6.5
Gender
Male 5.9 5.6 6.8 7.1 7.8 7.9 7.4 7.4 8.3
Female 4.0 4.2 4.7 5.0 5.3 5.6 4.6 4.7 4.7
Poverty status
Below poverty 7.1 6.7 8.8 9.2 9.5 9.7 9.2 9.7 8.8
At or above poverty 4.4 4.6 5.1 5.3 5.9 6.0 5.4 5.3 6.4
Race and Hispanic origin
White, non-Hispanic 4.9 5.0 5.8 6.0 6.7 6.6 6.0 5.7 7.0
Black, non-Hispanic 5.6 5.5 6.7 7.5 7.7 8.9 7.3 8.4 7.3
Hispanicc 4.7 4.1 5.5 5.3 5.6 5.7 5.8 6.3 4.8
Children ages 0-4
Total 2.5 2.2 2.4 2.8 2.8 3.1 2.7 2.6 3.4
Gender
Male 2.7 2.6 2.7 3.3 3.1 3.4 3.3 3.3 4.2
Female 2.3 1.7 2.1 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.0 1.7 2.7
Poverty status
Below poverty 4.0 3.0 4.3 4.5 4.3 5.2 3.9 4.9 4.5
At or above poverty 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.4 1.7 3.2
Race and Hispanic origin
White, non-Hispanic 2.3 2.1 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.7 2.7 1.8 3.6
Black, non-Hispanic 3.3 2.9 3.2 4.2 4.7 5.0 3.5 4.8 4.5
Hispanicc 2.5 2.0 1.8 2.5 2.7 3.1 2.5 3.4 2.4
Children ages 5-17
Total 6.1 6.1 7.2 7.5 8.1 8.2 7.4 7.5 7.7
Gender
Male 7.3 6.9 8.5 8.7 9.8 9.7 9.0 9.0 9.9
Female 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.2 6.4 6.7 5.6 5.9 5.5
Poverty status
Below poverty 8.7 8.5 11.0 11.7 12.2 11.9 11.8 12.1 10.7
At or above poverty 5.5 5.6 6.4 6.6 7.2 7.4 6.5 6.6 7.5
Race and Hispanic origin
White, non-Hispanic 6.0 6.2 7.1 7.4 8.4 8.1 7.2 7.1 8.2
Black, non-Hispanic 6.7 6.7 8.2 9.0 9.0 10.6 8.9 9.8 8.3
Hispanicc 5.8 5.1 7.2 6.7 7.1 7.0 7.5 7.7 5.9
a Chronic conditions usually have a duration of more than 3 months, e.g., asthma, hearing impairment, diabetes. Persons are not classified as limited in activity unless one or more chronic conditions are reported as the cause of the limitation.
b In 1997, the National Health Interview Survey was redesigned. Data for 1997 are not strictly comparable with earlier data.
c Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Health Interview Survey.

TABLE 3
Adolescent Birth Rate by Age, Race, and Hispanic Origin, Selected Years 1980-1998
(Live births per 1,000 females in specified age group)
Characteristic 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
All races
Ages 10-14 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0
Ages 15-17 32.5 31.0 37.5 38.7 37.8 37.8 37.6 36.0 33.8 32.1 30.4
Ages 18-19 82.1 79.6 88.6 94.4 94.5 92.1 91.5 89.1 86.0 83.6 82.0
Ages 15-19 53.0 51.0 59.9 62.1 60.7 59.6 58.9 56.8 54.4 52.3 51.1
White, total
Ages 10-14 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.6
Ages 15-17 25.5 24.4 29.5 30.7 30.1 30.3 30.7 30.0 28.4 27.1 25.9
Ages 18-19 73.2 70.4 78.0 83.5 83.8 82.1 82.1 81.2 78.4 75.9 74.6
Ages 15-19 45.4 43.3 50.8 52.8 51.8 51.1 51.1 50.1 48.1 46.3 45.4
White, non-Hispanic
Ages 10-14 0.4 - 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3
Ages 15-17 22.4 - 23.2 23.6 22.7 22.7 22.8 22.0 20.6 19.4 18.4
Ages 18-19 67.7 - 66.6 70.5 69.8 67.7 67.4 66.1 63.7 61.9 60.6
Ages 15-19 41.2 - 42.5 43.4 41.7 40.7 40.4 39.3 37.6 36.0 35.2
Black, total
Ages 10-14 4.3 4.5 4.9 4.8 4.7 4.6 4.6 4.2 3.6 3.3 2.9
Ages 15-17 72.5 69.3 82.3 84.1 81.3 79.8 76.3 69.7 64.7 60.8 56.8
Ages 18-19 135.1 132.4 152.9 158.6 157.9 151.9 148.3 137.1 132.5 130.1 126.9
Ages 15-19 97.8 95.4 112.8 115.5 112.4 108.6 104.5 96.1 91.4 88.2 85.4
Black, non-Hispanic
Ages 10-14 4.6 - 5.0 4.9 4.8 4.7 4.7 4.3 3.8 3.4 3.0
Ages 15-17 77.2 - 84.9 86.7 83.9 82.5 78.6 72.1 66.6 62.6 58.8
Ages 18-19 146.5 - 157.5 163.1 162.9 156.7 152.9 141.9 136.6 134.0 139.0
Ages 15-19 105.1 - 116.2 118.9 116.0 112.2 107.7 99.3 94.2 90.8 88.2
Hispanic a
Ages 10-14 1.7 - 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.3 2.1
Ages 15-17 52.1 - 65.9 70.6 71.4 71.7 74.0 72.9 69.0 66.3 62.3
Ages 18-19 126.9 - 147.7 158.5 159.7 159.1 158.0 157.9 151.1 144.3 140.1
Ages 15-19 82.2 - 100.3 106.7 107.1 106.8 107.7 106.7 101.8 97.4 93.6
American Indian/Alaska Native
Ages 10-14 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.6
Ages 15-17 51.5 47.7 48.5 52.7 53.8 53.7 51.3 47.8 46.4 45.3 44.4
Ages 18-19 129.5 124.1 129.3 134.3 132.6 130.7 130.3 130.7 122.3 117.6 118.4
Ages 15-19 82.2 79.2 81.1 85.0 84.4 83.1 80.8 78.0 73.9 71.8 72.1
Asian/Pacific Islander
Ages 10-14 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
Ages 15-17 12.0 12.5 16.0 16.1 15.2 16.0 16.1 15.4 14.9 14.3 13.8
Ages 18-19 46.2 40.8 40.2 43.1 43.1 43.3 44.1 43.4 40.4 39.3 38.3
Ages 15-19 26.2 23.8 26.4 27.4 26.6 27.0 27.1 26.1 24.6 23.7 23.1
- = not available
a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. T rend data for Hispanics are affected by expansion of the reporting area in which an item on Hispanic origin is included on the birth certificate as well as by immigration. These two factors affect numbers of events, composition of the His panic population, and maternal and infant health characteristics. The number of States in the reporting area increased from 22 in 1980 to 23 and the District of Columbia (DC) in 1983-87, 30 and DC in 1988, 47 and DC in 1989, 48 and DC in 1990, 49 and DC in 1991-92, and 50 and DC in 1993. Rates in 1981-88 were not calculated for Hispanics and white, non-Hispanics because estimates for these populations were not available. Recent declines in teenage birth rates parallel but outpace the reductions in birth rates for unmarried teenagers (POP6A). Birth rates for married teenagers have fallen sharply in the 1990s, but relatively few teenagers are married.
SOURCE: Centers for Diease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics System. Ventura, S.J., Martin, J.A., Curtin, S.C., Mathews, T.J., and Park. M.N. (2000). Births: Final data for 1998. National Vital Statistics Reports, 48 (3). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. Mathews, T.J., Ventura, S.J., Curtin, S.C., and Martin, J.A. (1998) Births of Hispanic origin, 1989-95. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 46 (6 , Supplement). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, Taffel, S.M. (1984). Birth andfertility rates for States: United States, 1990. Vital and Health Statistics, 42 (Series 21). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.

TABLE 4
Alcohol Use: Percentage of Students who Reported having Five or More Drinks in a Row in the Past Weeks by Grade, Gender, Race, and Hispanic Origin, Selected Years 1980-1999
Characteristic 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
8th-graders
Total - - - 12.9 13.4 13.5 14.5 14.5 15.6 14.5 13.7 15.2
Gender
Male - - - 14.3 13.9 14.8 16.0 15.1 16.5 15.3 14.4 16.4
Female - - - 11.4 12.8 12.3 13.0 13.9 14.5 13.5 12.7 13.9
Race and Hispanic origina
White - - - - 12.7 12.6 12.9 13.9 15.1 15.1 14.1 14.3
Black - - - - 9.6 10.7 11.8 10.8 10.4 10.4 9.0 9.9
Hispanicb - - - - 20.4 21.4 22.3 22.0 21.0 20.7 20.4 20.9
10th-graders
Total - - - 22.9 21.1 23.0 23.6 24.0 24.8 25.1 24.3 25.6
Gender
Male - - - 26.4 23.7 26.5 28.5 26.3 27.2 28.6 26.7 29.7
Female - - - 19.5 18.6 19.3 18.7 21.5 22.3 21.7 22.2 21.8
Race and Hispanic origina
Whites - - - - 23.2 23.0 24.5 25.4 26.2 26.9 27.0 27.2
Black - - - - 15.0 14.8 14.0 13.3 12.2 12.7 12.8 12.7
Hispanicb - - - - 22.9 23.8 24.2 26.8 29.6 27.5 26.3 27.5
12th-graders
Total 41.2 36.7 32.2 29.8 27.9 27.5 28.2 29.8 30.2 31.3 31.5 30.8
Gender
Male 52.1 45.3 39.1 37.8 35.6 34.6 37.0 36.9 37.0 37.9 39.2 38.1
Female 30.5 28.2 24.4 21.2 20.3 20.7 20.2 23.0 23.5 24.4 24.0 23.6
Race and Hispanic origina
White 44.3 41.5 36.6 34.6 32.1 31.3 31.5 32.3 33.4 35.1 36.4 35.7
Black 17.7 15.7 14.4 11.7 11.3 12.6 14.4 14.9 15.3 13.4 12.3 12.3
Hispanicb 33.1 31.7 25.6 27.9 31.0 27.2 24.3 26.6 27.1 27.6 28.1 29.3
- = not available
aExamples for race and Hispanic origin represent the mean of the specified year and the previous year. Data have been combined to increase subgroup sample sizes, thus providing more stable estimates.
bPersons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
SOURCE: Johnson, L.D., O'Malley, P.M., and Bachman, J.G., (1999). National survey results on drug use from the Monitoring the Future Study, 1975-1998 (NIH Publication No. 99-4660). Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, and Institute for Social Research. University of Michigan, Press release of December 17, 1999, and unpublished data from Monitoring the Future, Universityof Michigan.

TABLE 5
Birth Rates for Unmarried Women by Age of Mother, Selected Years 1980-1998
(Live births to unmarried women per 1,000 in specific age group)
Age of mother 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Total ages 15-44 29.4 32.8 43.8 45.2 45.2 45.3 46.9 45.1 44.8 44.0 44.3
Age group
Ages 15-17 20.6 22.4 29.6 30.9 30.4 30.6 32.0 30.5 29.0 28.2 27.0
Ages 18-19 39.0 45.9 60.7 65.7 67.3 66.9 70.1 67.6 65.9 65.2 64.5
Ages 20-24 40.9 46.5 65.1 68.0 68.5 69.2 72.2 70.3 70.7 71.0 72.3
Ages 25-29 34.0 39.9 56.0 56.5 56.5 57.1 59.0 56.1 56.8 56.2 58.4
Ages 30-34 21.1 25.2 37.6 38.1 37.9 38.5 40.1 39.6 41.1 39.0 39.1
Ages 35-39 9.7 11.6 17.3 18.0 18.8 19.0 19.8 19.5 20.1 19.0 19.0
Ages 40-44 2.6 2.5 3.6 3.8 4.1 4.4 4.7 4.7 4.8 4.6 4.6
Note: Nonmarital birth rates for 1989-93 are somewhat understated because births to unmarried women were substantially underreported in Michigan and Texas; data since 1994 have been reported on a complete basis. Thus, the overall increase in nonmarital birth rates between 1980 and 1994 is acurately recorded here, However, the rates for 1989-93, if computed on the basis of complete data, would have been higher than the rates shown here, and the peak years for the rates would have occurred in the early 1990s rather than in 1994. Ventura, S.J., Martin, J.A., Curtin, S.C., and Mathews, T.J. (1996). Advance report of final natality statistics, 1994. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, 44 (11, Supplement). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics System. Ventura, S.J., Martin. J.A., Curtin, S.C., Mathews. T.J., and Park, M.M. (2000). Births: Final data for 1998. National Vital Statistics Reports, g48 (3), Hyattsville, MD:National Center for Health Statistics.

TABLE 6
Child Poverty: Percentage of Related Children Under Age 18 Living Below Selected Poverty Levels by Age, Family Structure, Race, and Hispanic Origin, Selected Years 1980-1998
Characteristic 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1995 1997 1998
Under 100 percent of poverty
Children all families
Related children 18 20 20 21 22 22 21 20 20 19 18
White, non-Hispanic - - 12 12 12 13 12 11 10 11 10
Black 42 43 44 46 46 46 43 42 40 37 36
Hispanica 33 40 38 40 39 40 41 39 40 36 34
Related children under age 6 20 23 23 24 26 26 25 24 23 22 21
Related children ages 6-17 17 19 18 20 19 20 20 18 18 18 17
Children in married-couple families
Related children - - 10 11 11 12 11 10 10 10 9
White, non-Hispanic - - 7 7 7 8 7 6 5 5 5
Black - - 18 15 18 18 15 13 14 13 12
Hispanica - - 27 29 29 30 30 28 29 26 23
Related children under age 6 - - 12 12 13 13 12 11 12 11 10
Related children ages 6-17 - - 10 10 10 11 10 9 9 9 9
Children in female-householder families, no husband present
Related children 51 54 53 56 55 54 53 50 49 49 46
White, non-Hispanic - - 40 41 40 39 38 34 35 37 33
Black 65 67 65 68 67 66 63 62 58 55 55
Hispanica 65 72 68 69 66 66 68 66 67 63 60
Related children under age 6 65 66 66 66 66 64 64 62 59 59 55
Related children ages 6-17 46 48 47 50 49 49 47 45 45 45 42
All childrenb 18 21 21 22 22 23 22 21 21 20 19
Under 50 percent of poverty
Children in all families
Related children 7 8 8 9 10 10 9 8 8 8 8
White, non-Hispanic - - 4 5 5 5 4 3 4 4 4
Black 17 22 22 25 27 26 23 20 20 20 17
Hispanica - - 14 14 15 14 17 16 14 16 13
Under 150 percent of poverty
Children in all families
Related children 29 32 31 32 33 33 32 32 31 30 29
White, non-Hispanic - - 21 21 21 22 21 19 19 19 18
Black 57 59 57 60 60 61 58 56 56 51 52
Hispanica - - 55 58 58 60 58 59 57 56 52
- = not available
a Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
b Related and non-related children. Note: Estimates refer to children who are related to the householder and who are under age 18. The poverty level is based on money income and does not include noncash benefits, such as food stamps. Poverty thresholds reflect family size and composition and are adjusted each year using the annual average Consumer Price Index (CPI) level. The poverty threshold for a family of four was $16,660 in 1998. The levels shown here are derived from the ratio of the family's income to the familys poverty threshold. Related children include biological children, adopted children and stepchildren of the householder and all other children in the household related to the householder (or reference person) by blood, adoption, or marriage. For more detail, see U.S. Census Bureau, Series P-60, No. 207.
SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, March Current Population Survey, Current Population Reports, Consumer income, Series P-60, various years.

TABLE 7
Childhood Immunizations: Percentage of Children Ages 19 to 35 Months Vaccinated for Selected Diseases by Poverty Status, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1994-1998
Total Below poverty At or above poverty
Characteristic 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Total
Combined series (4:3:1:3)a a 61 67 69 71 74 72 77 80 79 82
Combined series (4:3:1)b 75 76 78 78 81 66 67 71 73 76 77 79 81 80 83
DTP (4 doses or more) c 76 79 81 81 84 69 71 73 76 80 79 81 84 84 86
Polio (3 doses or more) 83 88 91 91 91 78 84 88 90 90 85 89 92 92 92
Measles-containingb 89 90 91 91 92 87 85 87 86 90 90 91 92 92 93
Hib (3 doses or more)e 86 92 92 93 93 81 88 88 90 91 88 93 93 94 95
Hepatitis B (3 doses of more)f 37 68 82 81 87 25 64 78 80 85 41 69 83 85 88
Varicellag - - 12 26 43 - - 5 17 41 - - 15 29 44
White, non-Hispanic
Combined series (4:3:1:3)a 72 77 79 79 82 - 68 68 70 77 - 79 81 76 83
Combined series (4:3:1)b 78 79 80 80 83 - - 70 73 79 - - 82 82 84
DTP (4 doses or more)c 80 81 83 84 87 - - 72 76 82 - - 85 85 88
Polio (3 doses or more) 85 89 92 92 92 - - 88 90 91 - - 93 92 93
Measles-containingd 90 91 92 92 93 - - 86 85 91 - - 93 93 94
Hib (3 doses or more)e 87 93 93 94 95 - - 87 90 92 - - 94 95 96
Hepatitis B (3 doses or more)f 40 68 82 85 88 - - 75 80 87 - - 83 85 88
Varicellag - - 15 28 42 - - 6 17 37 - - 16 29 43
Black, non-Hispanic
Combined series (4:3:1:3)a 67 70 74 73 73 - 66 70 72 72 - 75 78 80 74
Combined series (4:3:1)b 70 72 76 74 74 - - 73 72 74 - - 80 78 76
DTP (4 doses or more)c 72 74 79 78 77 - - 75 76 77 - - 82 80 79
Polio (3 doses or more) 79 84 90 90 88 - - 88 90 88 - - 92 91 87
Measles-containingd 86 86 89 90 89 - - 88 88 89 - - 91 92 90
Hib (3 doses of more) e 85 89 90 92 90 - - 87 92 90 - - 92 94 90
Hepatitis B (3 doses or more)f 29 65 82 83 84 - - 79 82 86 - - 86 84 83
Varicellag - - 9 21 42 - - 3 16 40 - - 13 27 44
Hispanich
Combined series (4:3:1:3)a 62 69 71 72 75 - 65 68 71 73 - 72 74 77 79
Combined series (4:3:1)b 68 72 73 74 77 - - 70 72 76 - - 75 77 80
DTP (4 doses of more)c 70 75 77 77 81 - - 73 75 79 - - 79 80 83
Polio (3 doses or more) 81 87 89 90 89 - - 88 89 90 - - 90 90 90
Measles-containingd 88 88 88 88 91 - - 88 86 91 - - 89 89 93
Hib (3 doses of more)e 84 90 89 90 92 - - 88 89 92 - - 90 92 94
Hepatitis B (3 doses or more)f 33 69 80 81 86 - - 79 79 83 - - 82 84 88
Varicellag - - 8 22 47 - - 6 18 44 - - 11 25 48
- = not available
aThe 4:3:1:3 combined series consists of 4 doses of diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis vaccine(DTP), 3 doses of polio vaccine, 1 dose of a measles-containing vaccine (MCV), and 3 doses of Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine.
bThe 4:3:1 combined series consists of 4 doses of diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis vaccine (DTP), 3 doses of polio vaccine, and 1 dose of a measles-containing vaccine (MCV).
cDiphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis vaccine.
dRespondents were asked about measles-containing vaccine, including MMR (measles-mumps-rebella) vaccines.
eHaemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine.
fThe percentage of children 19 to 35 months of age who received 3 doses of hepatitis B vaccine was low in 1994, because universal infant vaccination with a 3-dose series was not recommended until November 1991.
gRecommended in July 1996. Administered on or after the first birthday.
hPersons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics and National Immunization Program, National Immunization Survey.

TABLE 8
Cigarette Smoking: Percentage of Students Who Reported Smoking Cigarettes Daily in the Previous 30 Days by Grade, Gender, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1980-1999
Characteristic 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
8th-graders
Total - - - 7.2 7.0 8.3 8.8 9.3 10.4 9.0 8.8 8.1
Gender
Male - - - 8.1 6.9 8.8 9.5 9.2 10.5 9.0 8.1 7.4
Female - - - 6.2 7.2 7.8 8.0 9.2 10.1 8.7 9.0 8.4
Race and Hispanic origina
White - - - - 7.7 8.8 9.7 10.5 11.7 11.4 10.4 9.7
Black - - - - 1.4 1.8 2.6 2.8 3.2 3.7 3.8 3.8
Hispanicb - - - - 7.3 7.2 9.0 9.2 8.0 8.1 8.4 8.5
10th-graders
Total - - - 12.6 12.3 14.2 14.6 16.3 18.3 18.0 15.8 15.9
Gender
Male - - - 12.4 12.1 13.8 15.2 16.3 18.1 17.2 14.7 15.6
Female - - - 12.5 12.4 14.3 13.7 16.1 18.6 18.5 16.8 15.9
Race and Hispanic origina
White - - - - 14.5 15.3 16.5 17.6 20.0 21.4 20.3 19.1
Black - - - - 2.8 3.1 3.8 4.7 5.1 5.6 5.8 5.3
Hispanicb - - - - 8.4 8.9 8.1 9.9 11.6 10.8 9.4 9.1
12th-graders
Total 21.3 19.5 19.1 18.5 17.2 19.0 19.4 21.6 22.2 24.6 22.4 23.1
Gender
Male 18.5 17.8 18.6 18.8 17.2 19.4 20.4 21.7 22.2 24.8 22.7 23.6
Female 23.5 20.6 19.3 17.9 16.7 18.2 18.1 20.8 21.8 23.6 21.5 22.2
Race and Hispanic origina
White 23.9 20.4 21.8 21.5 20.5 21.4 22.9 23.9 25.4 27.8 28.3 26.9
Black 17.4 9.9 5.8 5.1 4.2 4.1 4.9 6.1 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.7
Hispanicb 12.8 11.8 10.9 11.5 12.5 11.8 10.6 11.6 12.9 14.0 13.6 14.0
- = not available
a Estimates for race and Hispanic origin represent the mean of the specified year and the previous year. Data have been combined to increase subgroup sample sizes, thus providing more stable estimates.
bPersons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
SOURCE: Johnston, L.D., ÓMalley, P.M., and Bachman, J.G. (1999). National survey results on drug use from the Monitoring the Future Study, 1975-1998 (NIH Publication No. 99-4660). Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, and Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. Table 2-2. Data are from the study, Monitoring the Future, University of Michigan. Press release of December 17, 1999, and unpublished data from Monitoring the Future, University of Michigan.

TABLE 9
Difficulty Speaking English: Children Ages 5 to 17 Who Speak a Language Other than English at Home, and Who are Reported to Have Difficulty Speaking Englisha by Race, Hispanic Origin, and Region, Selected Years 1979-1995
Characteristic 1979 1989 1992 1995b
Children who speak another language at home
Number (in millions) 3.8 5.3 6.4 6.7
Percentage of children ages 5-17 8.5 12.6 14.2 14.1
Race and Hispanic origin
White, non-Hispanic 3.2 3.5 3.7 3.6
Black, non-Hispanic 1.3 2.4 4.2 3.0
Hispanicc 75.1 71.2 76.6 73.9
Other, non-Hispanicd 44.1 53.4 58.3 45.5
Regione
Northeast 10.5 13.5 16.2 15.1
Midwest 3.7 4.9 5.6 5.9
South 6.8 10.7 11.1 11.7
West 17.0 24.2 27.2 26.4
Children who speak another language at home and have difficulty speaking English
Number (in millions) 1.3 1.9 2.2 2.4
Percentage of children ages 5-17 2.8 4.4 4.9 5.1
Race and Hispanic origin
White, non-Hispanic 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.7
Black, non-Hispanic 0.3 0.5 1.3 0.9
Hispanicc 28.7 27.4 29.9 31.0
Other, non-Hispanicd 19.8 20.4 21.0 14.1
Regione
Northeast 2.9 4.8 5.3 5.0
Midwest 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.3
South 2.2 3.8 3.5 3.4
West 6.5 8.8 10.4 11.4
a Respondents were asked if the children in the household spoke a language other than English at home and how well they could speak English. Categories used for reporting were "Very well," "Well," "Not well," and "Not at all." All those reported to speak English less than "Very well" were considered to have difficulty speaking English based on an evaluation of the English-speaking ability of a sample of the children in the 1980s.
b Numbers in 1995 may reflect changes in the Current Population Survey because of newly instituted computer-assisted interviewing techniques and/or because of the change in the population controls to the 1990 Census-based estimates with adjustments.
cPersons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
dMost in this category are Asians/Pacific Islanders, but American Indian/Alaska Native children also are included.
e Regions: Northeast includes Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont. Midwestincludes Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. South includes Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. West includes Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.
Note: All nonresponses to the language questions are excluded from the tabulations.
SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, October (1992 and 1995) and November (1979 and 1989) Current Population Surveys. Tabulated by the National Center for Education Statistics.

TABLE 10
Early Childhood Care and Education: Percentage of Children Ages 3 to 5a Who Are Enrolled in Center-Based Early Childhood Care and Education Programsb by Child and Family Characteristics, Selected Years 1991-1999
Characteristic 1991 1993 1995 1996 1999
Total 53 53 55 55 59
Gender
Male 52 53 55 55 61
Female 53 53 55 55 58
Race and Hispanic origin
White, non-Hispanic 54 54 57 57 59
Black, non-Hispanic 58 57 60 65 73
Hispanicc 39 43 37 39 44
Other 53 51 57 45 66
Poverty statusd
Below poverty 44 49 45 44 52
At or above poverty 56 53 59 59 62
Family type
Two parents 50 52 55 54 59
One or no parent 54 54 56 58 61
Mother's highest level of educatione
Less than high school graduate 32 33 35 37 40
High school graduate/GED 46 43 48 49 51
Vocational/Technical or some college 60 60 57 58 63
College graduate 72 73 75 73 74
Mother's employment statuse, f
Worked 35 hours or more per week 59 61 60 63 64
Worked less than 35 hours per week 58 57 62 64 63
Looking for work 43 48 52 47 55
Not in labor force 45 44 47 43 53
aEstimates are based on children who have yet to enter kindergarten.
bCenter-based programs include day care centers, Head Start programs, preschool, nursery school, prekindergarten, and other early childhood programs.
cPersons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
dPoverty estimates for 1991 and 1993 are not comparable to later years because respondents were not asked exact household income.
eChildren without mothers in the home are not included in estimates dealing with mother's education or mother's employment status.
fUnemployed mothers are not shown separately but are included in the total.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Household Education Survey.

TABLE 11
Family Reading: Percentage of Children Ages 3 to 5a Who Were Read to Every Day in the Last Week by a Family Member by Child and Family Characteristics, Selected Years 1993-1999
Characteristic 1993 1995 1996 1999
Total 53 58 57 53
Gender
Male 51 57 56 51
Female 54 59 57 54
Race and Hispanic origin
White, non-Hispanic 59 65 64 61
Black, non-Hispanic 39 43 44 41
Hispanicb 37 38 39 33
Poverty statusc
Below poverty 44 48 46 38
At or above poverty 56 62 61 58
Family type
Two parents 55 61 61 57
One or no parent 46 49 46 42
Mother's highest level of educationd
Less than high school graduate 37 40 37 38
High school graduate/GED 48 48 49 44
Vocational/technical or some college 57 64 62 53
College graduate 71 76 77 70
Mother's employment statusd, e
Worked 35 hours or more per week 52 55 54 48
Worked less than 35 hours per week 56 63 59 55
Not in labor force 55 60 59 60
aEstimates are based on children who have yet to enter kindergarten.
bPersons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
cPoverty estimates for 1993 are not comparable to later years because respondents were not asked exact household income.
dChildren without mothers in the home are not included in estimates dealing with mother's education or mother's employment status.
eUnemployed mothers are not shown separately but are included in the total.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Household Education Survey.

TABLE 12
Family Structure and Children's Living Arrangements: Percentage of Children Under Age 18 by Presence of Parents in Household, Race, and Hispanic Origin, Selected Years 1980-1999
Race, Hispanic origin, and family type 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Total
Two parentsa 77 74 73 72 71 71 69 69 68 68 68 68
Mother onlyb 18 21 22 22 23 23 23 23 24 24 23 23
Father onlyb 22 333 3 3 4 4 4 4 4
No parent 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4
White, non-Hispanic
Two parentsa - - 81 80 79 79 79 78 77 77 76 77
Mother onlyb - - 15 15 16 16 16 16 16 17 16 16
Father onlyb - - 333 3 3 3 4 4 5 4
No parent - - 2 2 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3
Black
Two parentsa 42 39 38 36 36 36 33 33 33 35 36 35
Mother onlyb 44 51 51 54 54 54 53 52 53 52 51 52
Father onlyb 23 443 3 4 4 4 5 4 4
No parent 12 7 8 7 7 7 10 11 9 8 9 10
Hispanicc
Two parentsa 75 68 67 66 65 65 63 63 62 64 64 63
Mother onlyb 20 27 27 27 28 28 28 28 29 27 27 27
Father onlyb 22 334 4 4 4 4 4 4 5
No parent 3 3 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 5 5 5
- = not available
a Excludes families where parents are not living as a married couple.
b Includes some families where both parents are present in the household, but living as unmarried partners.
c Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
Note: Family structure refers to the presence of biological, adoptive, and stepparents in the child's household. Thus, a child with a biological mother and stepfather living in the household is said to have two parents.
SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, Martal status and living arrangements, Current Population Reports, annual reports. (Beginning in 1995, detailed tables are available on the Census Bureau website.)

TABLE 13
Food Security: Percentage of Children Under Age 18 in Households Experiencing Food Insecurity by Level of Hunger and Poverty Status, Selected Years 1995-1999
Characteristic 1995 1998 1999
All children
Food insecure without hunger 13.3 15.0 13.1
Food insecure with moderate
or severe hunger 6.1 4.7 3.8
Food insecure with
moderate hunger 5.1 4.0 3.3
Food insecure with
severe hunger 1.0 0.7 0.5
Below poverty
Food insecure without hunger 28.7 34.5 32.2
Food insecure with moderate
or severe hunger 15.6 14.2 11.8
Food insecure with
moderate hunger 12.9 11.8 10.2
Food insecure with
severe hunger 2.8 2.4 1.6
At or above poverty
Food insecure without hunger 8.2 10.3 8.7
Food insecure with moderate
or severe hunger 3.0 2.3 1.9
Food insecure with
moderate hunger 2.7 1.9 1.6
Food insecure with
severe hunger 0.4 0.4 0.3
Note: The Food Security Scale, the percentage of children under age 18 in households experiencing food insecurity with moderate to severe hunger , is based on the food security scale derived from data collected in the Food Security Supplement to the Current Population Survey. The food security scale provides a near-continuous measure of the level of food insecurity and hunger experienced within each household. A categorical measure based on the scale classifies households according to four designated levels of severity of household food insecurity: food secure, food insecure without hunger, food insecure with moderate hunger, and food insecure with severe hunger. Food-secure households do not report a pattern of difficulty obtaining enough or acceptable quality food. Food-insecure households without hunger report having difficulty obtaining enough food, reduced quality of diets, anxiety about their food supply, and increasingly resorting to emergency food sources and other coping behaviors, but do not report indicators of hunger. Food-insecure households with moderate hunger report food insecurity and a pattern of indicators of hunger for one or more adults and, in some cases, for children. Food-insecure households with severe hunger report multiple indicators of both adults' and children' s hunger. For a detailed explanation of the U.S. Department of Agriculture/Department of Health and Human Services Food Security Measurement scale, see Food and Nutrition Service (1997), Household food security in the United States in 1995 and 2000. Guide to measuring household food security, Alexandria, VA: Food and Nutrition Service.
Data for 1996 and 1997 are not strictly comparable with data for 1995, 1997 and 1999 due to methodology differences. In previous reports, data for 1995 were made consistent with 1996 and 1997 data. In this report, the 1996 and 1997 data have been omitted, but the 1995 data are retained because, although screened on a different basis than the revised method adopted in 1998 and 1999, this had little effect on prevalence estimates. The 1996 and 1997 data, however, cannot readily be adjusted to be comparable.
SOURCE : U.S. Census Bureau, Food Security Supplement to the Current Population Survey.

TABLE 14
General Health Status: Percentage of Children Under Age 18 in Very Good or Excellent Health by Age and Poverty Status, Selected Years 1984-1997
Age and poverty status 1984 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997a
Children ages 0-17
Total 78 81 80 80 79 79 81 80 81
Poverty status
Below poverty 62 66 65 65 64 64 65 64 68
At or above poverty 82 84 83 83 83 83 85 84 86
Children ages 0-4
Total 79 81 81 80 80 81 81 81 84
Poverty status
Below poverty 66 69 68 67 68 68 66 68 74
At or above poverty 82 84 84 84 84 84 86 85 88
Children ages 5-17
Total 77 80 80 80 79 79 81 79 81
Poverty status
Below poverty 60 64 64 64 63 62 64 62 65
At or above poverty 81 84 83 83 82 82 85 83 85
Children ages 5-17
Total 77 80 80 80 79 79 81 79 81
Poverty status
Below poverty 60 64 64 64 63 62 64 62 65
At or above poverty 81 84 83 83 82 82 85 83 85
aIn 1997, the National Health Interview Survey was redesigned. Data for 1997 are not strictly comparable with earlier data.
SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Health Interview Survey.

TABLE 15
Healthy Eating Index: Overall and Component Mean Scores for Children, 3-Year Average 1994-1996
Component Ages 2-3 Ages 4-6 Ages 7-10 Ages 11-14 Ages 15-18
All All All Females Males Females Males
Overall HEI score 73.8 67.8 66.6 63.5 62.2 60.9 60.7
1. Grains 8.3 7.2 7.6 6.7 7.2 6.3 7.5
(54) (27) (31) (16) (29) (17) (34)
2. Vegetables 5.9 4.9 5.1 5.5 5.4 5.8 6.3
(31) (16) (20) (24) (23) (26) (35)
3. Fruits 7 5.3 4.3 3.9 3.5 3.1 2.8
(53) (29) (18) (14) (9) (12) (11)
4. Milk 7.2 7.4 7.6 5.2 6.2 4.2 6.1
(44) (44) (49) (15) (27) (12) (28)
5. Meat 6.3 5.3 5.5 5.7 6.5 5.8 6.9
(28) (14) (17) (15) (28) (21) (36)
6. Total fat 7.4 7.3 7.2 7.2 6.8 7.1 6.8
(40) (38) (35) (37) (33) (38) (34)
7. Saturated fat 5.4 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.7 6.6 6
(27) (28) (28) (31) (32) (42) (35)
8. Cholesterol 9 8.9 8.7 8.5 7.6 8.4 6.7
(83) (83) (80) (78) (69) (77) (58)
9. Sodium 8.8 8.1 6.8 7.1 5.2 6.9 3.7
(64) (53) (54) (39) (21) (37) (51)
10. Variety 8.4 7.9 8.1 7.8 8.1 6.7 7.8
(64) (53) (54) (51) (58) (37) (51)
Note: Percentage of children meeting the dietary recommendations for each component appears in parentheses.
The Healthy Eating Index examines the diet of American children ages 2 to 18. The Index consists of 10 components, each representing different aspects of a healthful diet.
Components 1 to 5 measure the degree to which a person's diet conforms to the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Guide Pyramid serving recommendations for the five major food groups: grains (bread, cereal, rice, and pasta), vegetables, fruits, milk (Milk, yogurt, and cheese), and meat/meat alternatives (meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts). Component 7 measures saturated fat consumption as a percentage of total food energy intake. Components 8 and 9 measure total cholesterol intake and total sodium intake, respectively. And component 10 measures the degree of variety in a person's diet. Each component of the Index has a maximum score of 10 and a minimum score of 0. Intermediate scores are computed proportionatel y. High component scores indicate intakes close to recommended ranges or amounts. The maximum combined score for the 10 components is 100. An HEI score above 80 implies a good diet, an HEI score between 51 and 80 implies a diet that needs improvement, and an HEI score less than 51 implies a poor diet.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals.

TABLE 16
Illicit Drug Use: Percentage of Students Who Have Used Illicit Drugs in the Previous 30 Days by Grade, Gender, Race, and Hispanic Origin, Selected Years 1980-1999
Characteristic 1980a 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
8th-graders
Total - - - 5.7 6.8 8.4 10.9 12.4 14.6 12.9 12.1 12.2
Gender
Male - - - 5.8 6.4 8.7 11.9 12.7 14.6 13.3 11.9 12.6
Female - - - 5.4 7.1 8.1 9.6 11.9 14.1 12.3 11.9 11.7
Race and Hispanic origin b
White - - - - 5.9 7.1 8.7 18.9 13.2 13.7 12.4 11.3
Black - - - - 3.8 5.1 7.4 9.1 10.5 10.8 10.2 11.1
Hispanicc - - - - 10.2 12.3 15.7 16.7 16.5 15.9 15.9 17.0
10th-graders
Total - - - 11.6 11.0 14.0 18.5 20.2 23.2 23.0 21.5 22.1
Gender
Male - - - 12.1 11.3 15.2 20.5 21.1 24.3 24.8 22.5 23.7
Female - - - 10.8 10.5 12.5 16.1 19.0 21.9 21.0 20.5 20.4
Race and Hispanic origin b
White - - - - 12.1 13.1 16.4 19.7 22.4 23.8 23.1 22.6
Black - - - - 5.2 6.1 11.4 15.5 17.0 17.7 16.4 15.8
Hispanicc - - - - 12.7 15.0 18.0 20.6 22.5 24.2 24.2 23.8
12th-graders
Total 37.2 29.7 17.2 16.4 14.4 18.3 21.9 23.8 24.6 26.2 25.6 25.9
Gender
Male 39.6 32.1 18.9 18.4 15.9 20.4 25.5 26.8 27.5 28.7 29.1 28.6
Female 34.3 26.7 15.2 14.1 12.7 15.9 18.3 20.4 21.2 23.2 21.6 22.7
Race and Hispanic origin b
White 38.8 30.2 20.5 18.6 16.8 17.8 21.4 23.8 24.8 26.4 27.5 27.0
Black 28.8 22.9 9.0 7.2 7.3 9.1 14.3 18.3 19.7 20.0 19.4 20.2
Hispanicc 33.1 27.2 13.9 14.7 14.6 15.6 18.3 21.4 22.6 23.9 24.1 24.4
- = not available
a Beginning in 1982, the question about stimulant use (i.e., amphetamines) was revised to get respondents to exclude the inappropriate reporting of nonprescription stimulants. The prevalence rate dropped slightly as a result of this methodological change.
b Estimates for race and Hispanic origin represent the mean of the specified year and the previous year. Data have been combined to increase subgroup sample sizes, thus providing more stable estimates.
c Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
Note: Illicit drugs include marijuana, cocaine (including crack), heroin, hallucinogens (including LSD and PCP), amphetamines, and nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics.
SOURCE: Johnston, L.D., ÓMalley, M.M., and Bachman, J.G. (1999). National survey results on drug use from the Monitoring the Future Study, 1975-1998 (NIH Publication No. 99-4660), Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, and Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. Table 2-2. Data are from the study, Monitoring the Future, University of Michigan. Press release of December 17, 1999, and unpublished data from Monitoring the Future, University of Michigan.

TABLE 17
Income Distribution: Percentage of Related Children Under Age 18 by Family Income Relative to the Poverty Line, Selected Years 1980-1998
Poverty level 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Extreme povety 6.6 8.1 8.3 9.3 9.9 9.6 9.4 7.9 8.4 8.5 7.6
Below poverty,
but above extreme poverty 11.3 12.0 11.6 11.8 11.7 12.4 11.9 12.2 11.4 10.8 10.7
Low income 24.0 22.8 21.8 22.2 22.0 22.2 22.0 22.5 22.7 21.4 21.2
Medium income 41.4 37.7 37.0 35.7 34.9 33.4 33.7 34.5 34.0 34.4 33.5
High income 16.8 19.4 21.3 21.0 21.5 22.3 23.1 22.8 23.5 25.0 27.0
Very high income 4.3 6.1 7.4 7.0 7.3 8.4 9.1 8.9 9.2 10.1 11.2
Note: Estimates refer to children who are related to the householder and who are under age 18. The income classes are derived from the ratio of the family's income to the family's poverty threshold. Extreme poverty is less than 50 percent of the property threshold (i.e., between $8,330 and $15,659 for a family of four in 1998). Low income is between 100 and 199 percent of the poverty threshold (i.e., between $16,660 and $33,319 for a family of four in 1998). Medium income is between 200 and 399 percent of the poverty threshold (i.e., between $33,320 and $66,639 for a family of four in 1998). High income is 400 percent of the poverty threshold or more. V ery high income is 600 per cent of the pover ty threshold and over. [These income categories ar e similar to those used in the Economic report to the President (1998). A similar approach is used by Hernandez, D. (1993), America ' s children, except that Hernandez uses the relationship to median income to define his categories. For either method, the medium and high income categories are at similar levels of median family income.]
SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, March Current Population Survey.

TABLE 18
Mathematics Achievement: Average Scale Scores of Students Ages 9, 13, and 17 by Age and Child and Family Characteristics, Selected Years 1982-1996
Characteristic 1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996
Age 9
Total 219 222 230 230 231 231
Gender
Male 217 222 229 231 232 233
Female 221 222 230 228 230 229
Race and Hispanic origin
White 224 227 235 235 237 237
Black 195 202 208 208 212 212
Hispanica 204 205 214 212 210 215
Age 13
Total 269 269 270 273 274 274
Gender
Male 269 270 271 274 276 276
Female 268 268 270 272 273 272
Race and Hispanic origin
White 274 274 276 279 281 281
Black 240 249 249 250 252 252
Hispanica 252 254 255 259 256 256
Parents' education
Less than high school 251 252 253 256 255 254
Graduated high school 263 263 263 263 266 267
Some education after high school 275 274 277 278 277 278
Graduated college 282 280 280 283 285 283
Age 17
Total 299 302 305 307 306 307
Gender
Male 302 305 306 309 309 310
Female 296 299 303 305 304 305
Race and Hispanic origin
White 304 308 310 312 312 313
Black 272 279 289 286 286 286
Hispanica 277 283 284 292 291 292
Parents' education
Less than high school 279 279 285 286 284 281
Graduated high school 293 293 294 298 295 297
Some education after high school 304 305 308 308 305 307
Graduated college 312 314 316 316 318 317
aPersons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
Note: Data on parents' level of education are not reliable for 9-year-olds.
The mathematics proficiency scale ranges from 0 to 500:
Level 150: Simple arithmetic facts
Level 200: Beginning skills and understandings
Level 250: Numerical operations and begining problem solving
Level 300: Moderately complex procedures and reasoning
Level 350: Multi-step problem solving and algebra
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 1996trends in academic progress.

TABLE 19
Mortality Rate for Children Ages 1 to 4 by Age, Gender, Race, Hispanic Origin, and Cause of Death, Selected Years 1980-1989
(Deaths per 100,000 children in each group)
Characteristic 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998*
Ages 1-4
Totala 63.9 51.8 46.8 47.4 43.6 44.8 42.9 40.6 38.3 35.8 34.4
Gender
Male 72.6 58.5 52.4 52.0 48.0 49.5 47.3 44.8 42.2 39.7 37.5
Female 54.7 44.8 41.0 42.7 39.0 39.9 38.2 36.2 34.3 31.8 31.2
Race and Hispanic originb
White 57.9 46.6 41.1 41.7 38.1 38.3 36.5 35.1 32.9 31.6 29.9
White, non-Hispanicc - 45.3 37.6 38.7 36.3 36.4 35.1 33.9 32.1 31.1 29.3
Black 97.6 80.7 76.8 79.7 73.2 79.1 77.2 70.3 67.6 59.2 61.4
Hispanicc, d - 46.1 43.5 43.6 41.7 42.0 39.1 36.7 33.6 31.3 30.0
Asian/Pacific Islander 43.2 40.1 38.6 30.4 26.9 30.5 25.3 25.4 25.1 25.1 18.7
Leading causes of death
Unintentional injuries 25.9 20.2 17.3 17.5 15.9 16.4 15.9 14.5 13.8 13.1 -
Cancer 4.5 3.8 3.5 3.5 3.1 3.3 3.3 3.1 2.7 2.9 -
Birth defects 8.0 5.9 6.1 5.7 5.5 5.1 4.5 4.4 4.1 3.8 -
Homicide 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.8 2.8 2.9 3.0 2.9 2.7 2.4 -
Heart disease 2.6 2.2 1.9 2.2 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.4 -
Pneumonia/influenza 2.1 1.6 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.2 -
Injury-related deaths by cause
All injuries (intentional and unintentional) 28.9 23.0 19.9 20.5 18.7 19.4 19.0 17.4 16.7 15.5 -
Motor vehicle traffic related 7.4 5.9 5.3 5.0 4.7 4.8 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.3 -
Drowning 5.7 4.4 3.9 3.9. 3.5 3.7 3.1 3.5 3.2 3.1 -
Fire and burns 6.1 4.8 4.0 4.3 4.0 4.1 4.2 3.1 3.0 2.5 -
Firearms 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 -
Suffocation 1.9 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.1 -
Pedestrian (non-traffic)e 1.5 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.7 -
Fall 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3